UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Owen  O'Neill 


Steam-Heating  Problems. 


STEAM-HEATING  PROBLEMS; 


OR, 


QUESTIONS,  ANSWERS,  AND  DESCRIPTIONS 


RELATING    TO 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING, 


FROM 


THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER. 


WITH  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  NINE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


NEW  YORK  : 
THE   SANITARY  ENGINEER. 

1886. 


Copyright,  1886, 
BY  THE  SANITARY  ENGINE 


THE  SANITARY   ENGINEER    PRE 
140  WILLIAM  STREET,  N.  Y. 


/  n 


PREFACE. 


THE   SANITARY  ENGINEER,  while  devoted  to  Engineering,  Archi- 
tecture, Construction,  and  Sanitation,  has  always  made  a  special 
feature  of  its  departments  of  Steam  and  Hot-Water  Heating,  in  which  a 
great  variety  of  questions  has  been  answered  and  descriptions  of  the 
^vj      work  in  various  buildings  have  been  given.     The  favor  with  which  a 
^      recent  publication  from  this  office,  entitled  "Plumbing  and  House- 
^5      Drainage  Problems,"  has  been  received  suggested  the  publication  of 
^        "STEAM-HEATING  PROBLEMS,"  which,   though   dealing  with  another 
^      branch  of  industry,  is  similar  in  character.     It  consists  of  a  selection 
^     from  the  pages  of  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER  of  questions  and  answers, 
V     besides  comments  on  various  problems  met^with  in  the  designing  and 
_^S     construction  of  steam-heating  apparatus,  and  descriptions  of  steam- 
S    heating  work  in  notable  buildings. 

j«L          It  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  prove  useful  to  those  who  design, 
construct,  and  have  the  charge  of  steam-heating  apparatus. 


412138 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


BOILERS. 

PAGE 

On  blowing  off  and  filling  boilers, I? 

Where  a  test-gauge  should  be  applied  to  a  boiler,         .          .         .         .         .  1 8 

Domes  on  boilers  :  whether  they  are  necessary  or  not,  .....  19 

Expansion  of  water  in  boilers,     .........  21 

Cast  vs.  wrought  iron  for  nozzles  and  magazines  of  house-heating  boilers,        .  21 

Pipe-connections  to  boilers,       .........  22 

Passing  boiler-pipes  through  walls  :  how  to  prevent  breakage  by  settlement,    .  24 

Suffocation  of  workmen  in  boilers,       ........  25 

Heating-boilers.     (A  problem.)  .........  26 

A  detachable  boiler-lug, 28 

Isolating-valves  for  steam-main  of  boilers,   .......  29 

On  the  effect  of  oil  in  boilers,     .........  33 

Iron  rivets  and  steel  boiler-plates,        .         .          .         .         .          .         .          -35 

Proportions  for  rivets  for  boiler-plates,         .......  37 

Is  there  any  danger  in  using  water  continuously  in  boilers  ?  .         .         .          .  38 

Accident  with  connected  boilers,         ........  39 

A  supposed  case  of  charring  wood  by  steam-pipes,         .         .         .         .''"..  4° 

Domestic  boilers  warmed  by  steam,     ........  42 

VALUE  OF  HEATING-SURFACES. 

Computing  the  amount  of  radiator-surface  for  warming  buildings  by  hot  water,  45 
Calculating  the  radiating-surface  for  heating  buildings — the  saving  of  double- 
glazed  windows,       ..........  45 

Amount   of  heating-surface  required  in  hot-water  apparatus  boilers  and  in 

steam-apparatus  boilers,   .........  51 


Vlll  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Calculating  the  amount  of  radiating-surface  for  a  given  room,       .         .         .  51 

How  much  heating-surface  will  a  steam-pipe  of  given  size  supply  ?         .         .  52 

Coils  vs.  radiators  and  size  of  boiler  to  heat  a  given  building,  53 

Calculating  the  amount  of  heating-surface,  .......  53 

Computing  the  cost  of  steam  for  warming,  .......  54 

RADIATORS  AND  HEATERS. 

A  woman's  method  of  regulating  a  radiator  (covering  it  with  a  cosey),     .         .  56 

Improper  position  of  radiator-valves,  ........  57 

Hot-water  radiator  for  private  houses,         .......  58 

Remedying  air-binding  of  box-coils,  ........  59 

How  to  use  a  stove  as  a  hot-water  heater,   .......  60 

"  Plane"  vs,  "  Plain  "  as  a  term  as  applied  to  outside  surface  of  radiators,      .  61 

Relative  value  of  pipe  on  cast-iron  heating  surface,        .....  62 

Relative  value  of  pipe  on  steam-coils,           .......  62 

Warming  churches  (plan  of  placing  a  coil  in  each  pew),         ....  65 

Warming  churches,   ...........  67 

PIPING  AND  FITTING. 

Steam-heating  work — good  and  indifferent,           ......  70 

Piping  adjacent  buildings  :     Pumps  vs.  steam-traps,     .....  71 

True  diameters  and  weights  of  standard  pipes,     ......  74 

Expansion  of  pipes  of  various  metals,          .......  75 

Expansion  of  steam-pipes,          ........         s  75 

Advantages  claimed  for  overhead  piping,     .......  76 

Position  of  valves  on  steam-riser  connection,         ...'..  77 

Cause  of  noise  in  steam-pipes,    .........  78 

One  pipe  system  of  steam-heating,       ........  79 

How  to  heat  several  adjacent  buildings  with  a  single  apparatus,     .         .         .  81 

Patents  on  Mills'  system  of  steam-heating,  .......  83 

Air-binding  in  return  steam-pipes,       ........  83 

Air-binding  in  return  steam -pipes,  and  methods  to  overcome  it,     .         .         .  85 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


VENTILATION. 

PAGE 

Sizes  of  registers  to  heat  certain  rooms,        .......  86 

Determining  the  size  of  hot-air  flues,  ........  88 

Window  ventilation, ............  90 

Window  ventilation, ...........  91 

Removing  vapor  from  dye-house 92 

Ventilation  of  Cunard  steamer  "  Umbria,"  .......  93 

Calculating  sizes  of  flues  and  registers,         .......  97 

On  methods  of  removing  air  from  between  ceiling  and  roof  of  a  church,         .  98 

STEAM. 

Economy  of  using  exhaust  steam  for  heating 99 

Heat  of  steam  for  different  conditions,               •   .         .         .         ...         .  100 

Superheating  steam  by  the  use  of  coils,         .......  101 

Effect  of  using  a  small  pipe  for  exhaust  steam-heating,           ....  102 

Explosion  of  a  steam-table,         .........  103 

CUTTING  NIPPLES  AND  BENDING  PIPES. 

Cutting  large  nipples — large  in  diameter  and  short  in  length,         .         .         .  106 

Cutting  crooked  threads 108 

Cutting  a  close  nipple  out  of  a  coupling  after  a  thread  is  cut,           .         .         .  no 

Bending  pipe,   ............  in 

Cutting  large  nipples,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .          .         .         .  113 

Cutting  various  sizes  of  thread  with  a  solid  die,     .         .         .         .         .         .  113 

RAISING  WATER  AUTOMATICALLY. 

Contrivance  for  raising  water  in  high  buildings,    .         .         .         .         .         .  no 

Criticism   of  the  foregoing  and  description  of  another  device  for  a  similar 


purpose, 


118 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


MOISTURE  ON  WALLS,  ETC. 

PACK 

Cause  and  prevention  of  moisture  on  walls,         .         .         .         .         .         .  120 

Effect  of  moisture  on  sensible  temperature,           .         .         .         .         .         .  122 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Heating  water  in  large  tanks,     .........  124 

Heating  water  for  large  institutions  and  high  city  buildings,           .         .         .  125 

Questions  relating  to  water-tanks,        ........  127 

Faulty  elevator-pump  connections,       ........  128 

On  heating  several  buildings  from  one  source,     .          .          .         .         .         .  130 

Coal-tar  coating  from  water-pipe,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  130 

Filters  for  feeding  of  house-boilers.     Other  means  of  clarifying  water,    .          .  131 

Testing  gas-pipes  for  leaks  and  making  pipe-joints,       .          .         .         .         .  132 

Will  boiling  drinking-water  purify  it  ?         .          .          .          .          .          .          .  134 

Differential  rams  for  testing  fittings  and  valves,    .          .          .          .          .          .  134 

Percentage  of  ashes  in  coal,         .........  136 

Automatic  pump-governor,         .         .         .         .         ..         .         .         .  137 

Cast-iron  safe  for  steam-radiators,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  138 

Methods  of  graduating  radiator  service  according  to  the  weather,   .         .          .  139 

Preventing  fall  of  spray  from  steam-exhaust  pipes,         .         .         .         .         .  144 

Exhaust-condenser  for  preventing  fall  of  spray  from  steam-exhaust  pipes,  .  145 
Steam-heating  apparatus  and  plenum  (ventilation)  system  in  Kalamazoo  Insane 

Asylum, 146 

Heating  and  ventilation  of  a  prison,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  148 

Amount  of  heat  due  to  condensation  of  water,       .         .         .         .         .         .  152 

Expansion -joints,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  153 

Resetting  of  house-heating  boilers— a  possible  saving  of  fuel,  .  .  .  153 

How  to  find  the  water-line  of  boilers  and  position  of  try-cocks,  .  .  .  155 
Low-pressure  hot-water  system  for  heating  buildings  in  England  (comments 

by  the  Sanitary  Engineer),       r.          .          .          .          .          .          .          .  156 

Steam-heating  apparatus  in  Manhattan  Company's  and  Merchants';  Bank 

Building,  New  York, 161 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS.  XI 

FAGS 

Boilers  in  Manhattan  Company's  and  Merchants'  Bank  Building,  with  extracts 

from  specifications,           .........  172 

Steam-heating  apparatus  in  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Building  on  Broadway,     .  177 

The  setting  of  boilers  in  Tribune  Building,  New  York,          .         .         .         .  182 

Warming  and  ventilation  of  West  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York  City,         .  187 

Principles  of  heating-apparatus,  Fine  Arts  Exhibition  Building,  Copenhagen,  192 

Warming  and  ventilation  of  Opera  House  at  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,           .         .  195 

Systems  of  heating  houses  in  Germany  and  Austria,     .....  198 

Steam-pipes    under     New     York    streets  —  difference    between    two     systems 

adopted  ............  203 

Some  details  of  steam  and  ventilating  apparatus  used  on  the  continent  of 

Europe,           ...........  206 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

Applying  traps  to  gravity  steam-apparatus,  ......  212 

Expansion  of  brass  and  iron  pipe,       ........  213 

Connecting  steam  and  return  risers  at  their  tops,         .         .          .         .         .  213 

Power  used  in  running  hydraulic  elevators,  .          ......  215 

On  melting  snow  in  the  streets  by  steam,      .          .         .         .         .         .         .  216 

Action  of  ashes  street  fillings  on  iron  pipes,  .         .         .         .         .         .  217 

Arrangement   of   steam-coils  for  heating  oil-stills,          .          .         .         .         .  217 

Converting  a  steam-apparatus  into  a  hot-water  apparatus  and  back  again,         .  219 

Condensation  per  foot  of  steam-main  when  laid  underground,         .          .         .  221 

Oil  in  boilers  from  exhaust  steam,  and  methods  of  prevention,        ...  222 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

FIGURE  i. — Pipe  connections  to  boilers 23 

2. — Passing  boiler-pipes  through  walls  to  prevent  breakage  by  settle- 
ment   24 

"       3. — Feeding  boilers  (a  problem) 26 

4. — A  detachable  boiler-lug 29 

"       5,  6,  AND  7. — Isolating-valves 30,  31 

"       8. — The  effect  of  oil  in  boilers 34 

9,  10,  AND  ii. — Proportions  for  rivets 38 

"      12. — Accident  with  connected  boilers 39 

"      13. — A  supposed  case  of  charring  wood  by  steam-pipes 40 

"      14. — Hot-water  boilers  for  apartment-houses 43 

"      15. — A  woman's  method  of  regulating  a  radiator 56 

"      16. — Improper  position  of  radiator-valves 58 

"      17. — Remedying  the  air-binding  of  box-coils 59 

"      18. — How  to  use  stove  as  hot-water  heater 60 

"      19. — Relative  value  of  pipe  and  steam  coils 63 

"      20,  21,  22,  23,  AND  24. — Warming  churches  (plan  of  placing  a  coil  in 

each  pew) 65,  67,  68,  69 

"     25. — Steam-heating  work,  good  and  indifferent 7° 

"     26. — Piping  adjacent  buildings — pumps  or  steam  traps 72 

"     27  AND  28. — Advantages  claimed  for  overhead  piping 76 

"     29. — Position  of  valves  on  steam-riser  connections 78 

"     30. — How  to  heat  several  buildings  with  a  single  apparatus 82 

"     31  AND  32. — Air-binding  in  return  steam-pipes 85 

' '     33. — Window-ventilators Qi 

"      34. — Removing  vapor  from  dye-house 92 


Xiv  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

FIGURES  35,  36,   37,   AND  38.— Ventilation    of   Cunard  steamer  "Umbria" 

(details) 94.  96 

"      39. — To  prevent  explosion  of  a  steam-table 104 

"     40. — Cutting  large  nipples 107 

"     41. — Cutting  crooked  threads 109 

"     42  AND  43. — Bending  pipe 112 

"     44. — Cutting  various  sizes  of  threads  with  a  solid  die 114 

"     45,   46,   47,   AND   48. — Contrivance   for  raising  water  in  high  build- 
ings  116,117,119 

"     49. — Heating  water  in  large  tanks 124 

"      50  AND  51. — Heating  water  for  large  institution 125,  126 

"     52. — Faulty  elevator-pump  connections 129 

'      53.  — Means  of  clarifying  water  for  house-boilers 131 

"     54. — Differential  ram  for  testing  fittings 135 

'      55. — Automatic  pump-governor 137 

"      56. — Cast-iron  safe  for  steam-radiators 138 

"      57.   58,   59,    60,   AND   61.— Methods    of    graduating  radiator-surface 

according  to  the  weather 140,  141,  142,  143,  144 

'      62  AND  63. — Methods  of    preventing  the   fall   of  spray  from  steam 

exhaust-pipes 145,  146 

64. — Steam-heating  apparatus  and   plenum  system  in  the  Kalamazoo 

Insane  Asylum  (a  detail) -. 147 

'      65  AND  66. — Heating  and  ventilating  a  prison  (details) 149,  150 

'      67. — A  form  of  expansion-joint 153 

'      68.— Low-pressure    hot-water    system     for     heating     buildings      in 

England 157 

'      69.  70,   71,   72,   73.   74,  AND  75.— Steam-heating  apparatus    in     the 
Manhattan    Company's     and     Merchants'    Bank    Building, 

New  York  (details) 163,  165,  166,  168,  169,  170,  171 

76,  77,  AND  78.— The  boilers  in  Manhattan  Company's  and  Merchants' 

Bank  Building,  New  York  (details) 173,  174,  175 

79  AND  80.— Steam-heating  apparatus  in   the  Mutual   Life   Insurance 

Company's  Building,  New  York 179,  181 


LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XV 

PAGE 
FIGURES  81,  82,  83,  AND  84.— The  setting  of  boilers  in  Tribune  Building,  New 

York 183,  184,  185,  186 

"      85,  86,  87,  AND  88. — Warming  and  ventilation  of  the  West  Presbyterian 

Church,  New  York  (details) 188,  189,  190,  191 

"     89    AND    90. — Heating-apparatus,    Fine    Art     Exhibition     Building, 

Copenhagen 193,  194 

"     91,  92,  93,  AND  94. — Warming  and  ventilation  of  the  Opera  House, 

Ogdensburg,   N.  Y 195,  196,  197,  198 

"     95,   96,   97,   AND  98.  — Systems  of  heating  houses   in   Germany  and 

Austria 199,  200,  202 

"     99. — Arrangement  of  system  of  steam-pipes  in  streets  of  New  York 

City 204 

"      100,  101,  102,  103,  104,  105,  106,  107,  AND  108. — Some  details  of  steam 

and  ventilating  apparatus  as  used  on  the  Continent . .  206,  207, 

208,  209,  210,  211 
"      109. — Applying  traps  to  gravity  steam-apparatus 212 


BOILERS. 


BLOWING  OFF  AND  FILLING  BOILERS. 

Q.  WILL  you  please  reply  to  the  following  inquiry?  It  is  a  question 
of  steam-heating.  The  boiler  is  a  tubular  boiler.  My  man  blew  the 
boiler  off  with  ten  pounds  of  steam  on.  Would  it  be  better  to  fill  it 
with  water  again  during  the  summer  season,  or  not  ? 

A.  It  is  reasonable  to  presume  that  when  your  man  blew  the  boiler 
off  with  a  pressure  of  ten  pounds  of  steam  in  it  the  walls  and  furnace 
were  still  quite  hot.  This  is  not  considered  good  practice,  as  the  heat  of 
the  fire-bricks,  etc.,  is  sufficient  to  heat  and  expand  the  under  side  of  the 
shell  of  the  boiler,  when  there  is  no  water  in  it,  to  an  extent  that  is  con- 
sidered detrimental  to  the  boiler-plates.  To  avoid  this  possibility  when 
there  is  more  than  one  boiler,  the  steam-pressure  from  one  of  them  may 
be  let  into  any  of  the  others  that  has  been  without  fire  for  several  hours, 
and  the  water  and  scum,  etc.,  ejected  in  that  way. 

In  the  case  of  a  single  boiler,  when  it  is  going  to  be  put  out  of  com- 
mission, fill  it  to  "  three  cocks  "  and  blow  down  to  "one  cock  "  repeatedly, 
and  until  you  think,  from  a  previous  knowledge  of  the  condition  of 
your  boiler,  that  it  is  clean,  or  that  you  have  removed  all  that  can  be 
removed  in  this  manner.  Then  let  the  fires  out  and  next  day  run  off 
the  water  by  gravity,  when  the  boiler  should  be  opened  and  the  remain- 
ing matter  removed  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  A  very  good  way,  then, 
is  to  nearly  fill  the  boiler  with  water,  after  which  a  few  gallons  of  crude 
oil  may  be  put  in,  and  the  boiler  entirely  filled  with  water.  Then  draw 
off  all  the  water  slowly  from  the  boiler,  and  the  oil  will  be  brought  in 
contact  with  every  portion  of  the  inside  of  the  boiler. 

Previous  to  starting  up  again  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  fill  up  the 
boiler  and  wash  it  out,  and  should  any  scales  be  loosened  in  the  mean 
time,  remove  them. 


l8  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

The  above  method  is  better  than  filling  with  water,  but  filling  with 
water  is  better  than  taking  out  the  handhole  and  manhole  plates  and 
allowing  air  to  pass  through  a  damp  boiler. 

Some  open  their  boilers  and  dry  them  out  thoroughly  with  heat, 
and  try  to  preserve  them  dry  for  the  summer,  but  the  boiler  is  usually 
cold  enough  to  condense  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  and  rust. 
Again,  if  the  boiler  is  kept  perfectly  dry  and  closed,  the  scale  will  not 
loosen  from  the  tubes,  if  any  is  present. 


WHERE  A  TEST-GAUGE  SHOULD  BE  APPLIED  TO  A 
BOILER. 

Q.  PART  of  u  Rule  40  "  of  the  General  Rules  and  Regulations  of 
the  Supervising  Inspectors  for  Steam- Vessels  reads  :  "  In  applying  the 
hydrostatic  test  to  boilers  with  a  steam-chimney,  the  test-gauge  should 
be  applied  to  the  water-line  of  such  boilers." 

What  we  desire  to  know  is,  why  the  gauge  would  not  be  just 
as  well  screwed  into  the  head  of  the  steam-chimney  or  dome  as  at  the 
water-line  ?  What  real  difference  can  it  make  ? 

A.  The  object  of  the  provision  of  the  rule  above  stated  is,  to  pro- 
vide that  the  boiler  will  be  subjected  at  all  its  parts  to  as  near  as  possible 
the  pressure  required  by  law.  When  a  boiler  is  just  filled  with  water 
there  is  a  pressure  at  its  bottom  of  one  pound  for  every  twenty-seven 
inches  of  the  height  the  boiler  may  be,  and  no  pressure  at  its  top.  If, 
then,  a  boiler  is  twenty-two  and  one-half  feet  from  the  water  bottom  to 
the  top  of  the  steam-chimney — not  an  unusual  thing  in  marine  boilers — 
there  will  be  a  pressure  of  ten  pounds  per  square  inch  on  a  gauge  at 
the  bottom  of  the  boiler  before  the  pump  is  at  all  applied.  If  thereafter 
the  pressure  is  applied,  and  this  gauge  registers  forty  pounds,  there  is 
but  a  pressure  of  thirty  pounds  at  the  top  of  the  dome.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  gauge  were  attached  to  the  highest  point,  and  fixed  at  that 
level,  there  would  be  actually  fifty  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  bottom. 
For  this  reason  the  water-line  is  taken  as  the  best  position  for  the 
gauge. 


BOILERS.  19 

It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  a  hole  should  be  made  in  the 
boiler  at  this  position,  but  the  gauge  must  occupy  that  level,  and  the 
gauge-pipe  be  full  of  water,  that  the  head  of  water  within  it  may  act 
with  or  against  the  spring  of  the  gauge,  as  the  case  may  be. 


DOMES  ON  BOILERS. 

Q.  I  HAVE  noticed  a  recent  specification  for  boilers,  very  minute  in 
detail. 

First — I  cannot  see  why  a  single-sheet  standard-steel  boiler  (such 
as  is  made  by  the  Erie  City  Iron-Works  and  others)  was  not  demanded 
in  it,  in  place  of  one  with  so  many  useless  seams. 

Second — Why  do  they  call  for  "  domes  "  on  the  boilers  ?  In  the 
country  we  do  not  see  the  use  of  cutting  a  hole  in  a  good  strong 
boiler  to  rivet  a  piece  on. 

I  wish  you  would  provoke  a  general  discussion  of  domes.  I 
think  a  good  deal  of  money  is  expended  annually  on  these  useless  relics 
of  a  bygone  theory. 

A.  The  boilers  in  question  were  66  inches  in  diameter  by  17  feet  9 
inches  in  length.  To  make  one  of  these  from  one  sheet  of  steel  would 
require  a  sheet  iS'^xiy'd",  The  writer  of  the  specification  in  question 
says  he  has  yet  to  hear  of  the  making  of  a  sheet  of  steel  of  that  size. 
He  also  informs  us  that  he  is  of  the  opinion  there  is  no  machinery  in 
the  country  fit  to  roll  such  a  sheet,  and  that  if  there  were,  boiler-makers 
are  not  provided  with  the  bending-rollers  of  sufficient  length  to  make 
it  into  a  cylinder.  The  largest  boiler  made  by  the  works  you  mention, 
that  has  come  to  our  knowledge,  was  60  inches  in  diameter  by  16  feet 
long,  and  was  made  of  two  sheets  of  steel,  as  we  believe  all  the  boilers 
are  that  have  been  made  in  this  manner,  and  which,  of  course,  necessi- 
tates two  longitudinal  seams.  With  these  boilers  the  fibre  of  the  steel — 
and  we  cannot  entirely  ignore  the  fact  of  there  being  a  fibre  in  rolled 
steel — runs  with  the  length  of  the  boiler,  and  the  bending  is  done  in 
the  opposite  direction,  both  factors  which  militate  against  the  strength 
of  a  cylinder  in  the  direction  where  it  requires  the  greatest  strength. 

The  boilers  you  criticise  were  made,  we  are  informed,  of  the  best 
grade  of  American  iron  in  the  market.  The  sheets  were  long  enough  to 


20  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

go  around  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  fibre,  and  there  was  but 
one  longitudinal  seam  in  each  course,  and  therefore  one  less  longitudi- 
nal seam  than  in  the  boilers  you  advocate,  and  the  seam  was  alternately 
on  opposite  upper  quarters  of  the  boiler.  Five  sheets  or  courses  were 
used  in  the  length  of  the  boiler,  and  these  had  to  be  joined  by  seams, 
but  as  the  metal  of  a  cylindrical  boiler  is  loaded  but  one-half  in  the 
direction  of  its  length  that  it  is  in  the  direction  of  its  circumference;  the 
factor  for  safety  at  circumferential  seams  (in  courses  and  heads)  is 
much  greater  than  in  the  longitudinal  seam. 

The  argument  may  be  made  for  mild  steel  that  it  is  homogeneous 
throughout,  and  that  there  are  no  hard  spots  in  it ;  but  steel  from  differ- 
ent makers  presents  such  vast  differences  in  quality  and  degrees  of 
hardness  or  ductility  that  some  engineers  still  prefer  to  use  fine  brands 
of  iron  to  taking  any  chances  with  steels,  when  they  cannot  designate 
the  makers. 

With  regard  to  the  question  of  domes,  there  is  some  difference  of 
opinion,  with  the  preponderance  in  favor  of  having  domes  or  drums.  It 
is  admitted  a  dome  does  not  strengthen  a  boiler,  but  for  heating  appa- 
ratus, where  large  main  pipes  are  used,  they  are  almost  indispensable. 
Who  can  expect  to  attach  a  5 -inch  pipe  directly  to  the  shell  of  a  boiler, 
and  15  inches  or  so  above  the  water-line,  and  draw  steam  directly  into 
the  pipe  without  producing  a  waterspout?  There  are  cases  in  the  writer's 
mind  where  the  water  went  from  boilers  so  fast  from  this  cause  that  he 
was  in  doubt  whether  it  was  best  to  run  from  the  boiler-room  or  climb 
on  top  of  the  boiler  and  "  throttle  her  down."  * 

Of  course,  "  dry-pipes  "  and  "  deflecting  sheets,"  and  such  contriv- 
ances, will  obviate  all  this  to  some  extent,  but  what  is  the  use  of  produc- 
ing a  condition  for  the  sake  of  applying  a  remedy,  when  with  a  dome 
properly  put  on  the  remaining  strength  of  the  boiler  is  as  great  as  the 
strength  of  the  longitudinal  seam  ? 

*  "  Throttling  down  "  means  partly  closing  the  main  steam -valve 


EXPANSION    OF   WATER   IN   BOILERS. 

Q.  I  HAVE  a  number  of  horizontal  boilers,  48  inches  in  diameter 
by  16  feet  long,  in  which  the  increase  in  bulk  of  water  is  very  apparent 
when  the  boilers  are  first  warmed  up.  What  I  desire  to  know  is,  should 
I  fill  a  boiler  with  water  at  a  temperature  of  say  between  40°  and  50° 
Fah.  to  "  two  cocks,"  or,  in  other  words,  to  the  second  gauge,  how  may 
I  calculate  how  much  higher  the  water  will  be,  due  to  expansion  alone, 
when  steam  is  up  to  69  pounds  pressure  ? 

A.  You  have  not  sent  us  sufficient  data  to  give  anything  like  an 
accurate  reply.  In  fact,  we  do  not  see  how  we  could  give  a  fair 
approximation  without  a  drawing  of  your  boiler-heads,  showing  the  size 
and  number  of  tubes  and  the  positions  of  the  water-gauges.  When  the 
bulk  of  water  at  40°  Fah.  is  1,000,  the  bulk  at  307°  (60  pounds  of 
steam)  will  be  1,090.  But  from  this  must  be  taken  the  quantity  of  water 
which  has  been  made  into  steam  to  fill  the  steam-space  of  the  boiler  ; 
and  the  enlargement  of  the  boiler  itself,  due  to  the  increased  heat,  will 
enter  into  the  problem,  though  not  to  a  very  great  extent. 


MUZZLES  OF  MAGAZINES  OF  HOUSE-HEATING  BOILERS. 

Q.  WILL  you  inform  me  if  there  is  anything  better  than  cast-iron 
with  which  to  form  the  muzzles  of  magazines  for  house-heating  boilers  ? 
I  have  tried  wrought-iron  and  cast-iron  in  a  base-burning  boiler  of  my 
own  design,  and  neither  last  more  than  one  winter. 

The  cast-iron  muzzles  spread  at  the  lower  end,  and  pieces  fall  out 
of  them,  and  the  wrought-iron  spreads  so  that  it  almost  turns  up  at  the 
outer  edge.  Is  there  any  remedy  for  this  ? 

I  use  strong  draught  and  a  bright  and  small  fire,  as  I  imagine  this 
is  the  proper  way  to  burn  the  coal  to  obtain  the  best  results  in  point  of 
economy  of  fuel. 

Any  points  on  this  subject  that  your  experience  can  suggest  will  be 
thankfully  received. 

A.  Cast-iron  is  presumably  the  best  suited  for  magazine  muzzles, 
but  almost  anything  that  projects  downward  into  a  hot  fire,  unless  there 
is  a  water-circulation  within  it,  will  burn.  The  curling  outward  of  a 
wrought-iron  and  the  breaking  off  of  parts  of  a  cast-iron  muzzle  can 


22  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

be  prevented  if  you  arrange  the  edge  of  the  muzzle  so  that  it  will  be 
made  up  of  a  number  of  prongs  set  close  together,  or  if  slots  somewhat 
like  saw-cuts  are  made  in  its  lower  edge  for  a  distance  of  two  or  three 
inches  and  one  and  a  half  or  two  inches  asunder. 

The  reason  the  wrought-iron  muzzle  turns  up  is,  that  the  lower 
edge  of  it  is  made  very  hot,  while  a  few  inches  above  it  the  body  of  the 
coal  in  the  magazine  and  the  conduction  of  heat  into  the  body  of  the 
boiler  leaves  it  comparatively  cool.  The  hot  lower  edge  is  expanded 
and  lengthened  considerably  in  all  directions,  and  must  go  outward  on 
account  of  the  cylindrical  shape.  This  occurs  with  every  considerable 
change  in  temperature,  and  gradually  the  hot  lower  end  takes  a  perma- 
nent outward  set,  by  being  strained  within  itself,  and  presumably  beyond 
its  limit  of  elasticity,  from  which  it  cannot  entirely  recover  when  it  cools. 
Each  heating,  therefore,  is  going  to  spread  it  larger  and  larger,  until  it 
is  bell-mouthed.  The  same  process  goes  on  with  cast-iron,  except  that, 
from  its  nature,  it  cracks  and  pieces  fall  from  it  before  it  turns  far. 

The  slots  will  relieve  this  strain  on  the  lower  edge,  and  though  it 
becomes  equally  as  hot,  the  compensation  of  the  prongs  as  they  widen 
into  the  slots  prevents  spreading,  as  each  prong  is  an  independent 
piece.  This  will  not  prevent  the  burning  of  the  prongs  in  a  hot  fire, 
but  they  will  burn  backward  slowly. 


PIPE-CONNECTIONS    TO    BOILERS. 

AT  a  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Manchester 
Steam  Users' Association,  held  May  30, 1885,  Mr.  Leavington  E.  Fletcher, 
Chief  Engineer,  presented  his  report,  from  which  it  appears  that  an 
inspector  of  the  association,  in  making  an  examination,  found  that 
the  safety-valve  would  not  blow  when  relieved  of  weight,  although 
there  were  ten  pounds  of  steam  on  the  boiler.  At  a  pressure  of  thirty- 
nine  pounds  it  suddenly  began  to  blow  violently,  and  subsequent  investi- 
gation developed  the  fact  that  three  weeks  previous  a  new  rubber  joint 
had  been  made  under  the  safety-valve,  but  that  the  person  in  making 
the  joint  did  not  cut  the  centre  out  of  the  gasket,  and  that  it  did  not 


BOILERS. 


burst  until  the  pressure  mentioned  was  attained.  He  cites  another  case 
where  two  men  were  killed  in  Liverpool  by  the  bursting  of  a  feed-water 
heater,  in  consequence  of  a  rubber  gasket  not  being  cut  out.  The  water 
was  forced  into  the  heater  from  the  pump,  and  the  pipe  that  was  stopped 
was  between  the  heater  and  the  boiler.  The  pressure  was  sufficient  to 
burst  the  heater-tank. 

He  also  refers  to  a  growing  practice  of  using  malleable-iron  safety- 
valve  levers.     These  levers  are  nothing  but  cast-iron  made  malleable, 
and  may  be  defective 
through  insufficient  or     r- — ' 
improper  manufac-     •' 
ture,  and  it  is  certainly 
not  a  fit  material  for 
safety-valve  levers.    A 
case  in  point  was  the 
sudden    breaking    of 
one    of    these    levers 
that    looked     like 
wrought-iron,    delug- 
ing  the    boiler-room 
with  steam  and  water. 

[In  New  York 
and  the  big  cities,  at 
the  present  time,  nearly  all  flanges  are  riveted  to  the  domes  and 
shells  of  the  boilers,  and  the  safety-valves  attached  by  screwed  nipples  ; 
no  soft  joint  being  used  inside  the  safety-valves  or  stop-valves.  This 
prevents  the  necessity  of  a  gasket  between  these  valves  and  the  boiler, 
and  has  been  brought  about  through  the  annoyance  of  having  to  renew 
soft  joints  annually  or  oftener  in  hotels,  apartments,  and  office  buildings. 

If,  instead  of  using  India  rubber,  with  its  web  of  canvas  or  fibrous 
materials,  asbestos  cardboard  were  largely  used  for  packing  flanges,  the 
dangers  cited  from  the  neglect  to  cut  out  the  rubber  would  be  overcome 
in  consequence  of  the  cardboard  being  softened  to  a  pulp  by  the  mois- 
ture of  the  steam  or  water,  and  at  best  having  little  sustaining  power, 
being  about  of  the  strength  of  blotting-paper  of  the  same  thickness. 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


The  method  shown  in  Figure  i  is  that  now  almost  universally 
used  in  boilers  for  our  large  cities  and  by  boiler-makers  accustomed 
to  doing  that  class  of  work. — ED.] 


PASSING  BOILER-PIPES  THROUGH  WALLS. 

Q.  IN  passing  pipes  through  the  brick  walls  of  boilers  I  am  forced 
to  make  holes  much  larger  than  the  pipes,  otherwise  the  pipes 
will  rest  on  the  bricks,  should  there  be  settling  or  heaving  of  the  walls 


or  boilers.       Is   there   any   practical    method 


of  accomplishing  this 
without  leaving  large 
holes  for  the  passage 
of  cold  air  to  the 
boiler  or  furnace  ? 


A.  Presumably  the 
best  method  of  accom- 
plishing what  you  de- 
sire is  to  turn  an  arch 
over  large  pipes  where 
they  pass  through  the 
walls,  leaving  suffi- 
cient clearance  —  one 
or  one  and  one-half 
inches  ;  then  fasten  a 
flange  to  the  pipe  with 
a  set-screw  as  shown, 
the  flange  being  large 
enough  to  cover  the 
hole.  With  small  pipes 
an  arch  is  not  neces- 
sary. This  provides  for  movements  of  the  pipe  in  the  direction  of 
the  plane  of  the  wall. 

If  the  pipes  move  in  and  out  slightly,  caused  by  expansion,  and  it 
is  desirable  to  keep  tight  joints,  use  a  collar  on  the  pipe  and  a  loose 
flange  with  a  spiral  spring  between  them,  as  shown  in  the  lower  part 
of  Figure  2,  and  the  difficulty  will  be  obviated. 


FIGURE 


25 


SUFFOCATION  OF  WORKMEN  IN  BOILERS. 
A  CORRESPONDENT  writes  : 
Sir  :  I  noticed  the  following  in  the  Locomotive  for  January,  1885  : 

"  Considerable  comment  has  been  made  in  some  of  the  newspapers 
over  the  death  of  the  engineer  at  the  Laflin  &  Rand  Powder- Works. 
It  is  asserted  that  he  was  overcome  by  carbonic-acid  gas  in  the  boiler  ; 
but  we  do  not  see  how  the  boiler  could  become  filled  with  this  gas. 
We  have  entered  boilers  in  about  every  imaginable  condition,  and  we 
have  never  found  it  yet." 

It  is  rare  to  find  carbonic-acid  gas  in  any  considerable  quantity  in 
boilers ;  but  should  the  manhole-plate  of  a  boiler  be  removed  over- 
night, and  other  boilers  in  the  same  boiler-room  be  fired  for  any  con- 
siderable time,  or  "banked,"  with  closed  dampers,  there  is  a  possibility 
of  the  carbonic  acid  or  carbonic  oxide  accumulating  in  the  open  boiler 
on  the  well-known  principle  of  the  former's  precipitation  into  wells  or 
holes  in  the  ground.  But  an  actual  case  of  carbonic  acid  in  a  boiler, 
in  which  the  writer  was  the  principal  actor,  is  as  follows  :  A  hole  about 
thirteen  inches  in  diameter  had  been  made  through  the  shell  of  the 
boiler  into  the  dome.  Through  this  the -writer  forced  himself  to  the 
waist,  with  a  candle  and  some  tools  to  remove  the  "  burs  "  from  the  » 
edges  of  some  small  bolt-holes  that  had  been  made  with  a  "  cape " 
chisel  and  rounded  with  a  drift-pin.  After  working  a  few  moments 
the  candle  began  to  burn  dim,  and  while  looking  for  something  to 
touch  the  wick  with,  it  went  out.  This  proved  sufficient  warning  to 
one  who  had  a  smattering  of  physics,  and  he  wiggled  out  of  that  hole 
in  "  less  than  no  time." 

The  question  may  now  be  asked  why  the  man  did  not  "  go  out " 
as  soon  as  the  candle,  but  probably  the  reason  lay  in  the  fact  that 
his  nose  was  near  the  little  holes,  and  the  candle  was  at  the  lowest 
point  in  the  dome.  Both  the  man  and  the  candle  had  vitiated  the  few 
cubic  feet  of  air  in  the  drum,  and  his  body  in  the  hole  prevented  the 
diffusion  of  the  noxious  gas  into  a  greater  body  of  air. 

Very  respectfully  yours,  B. 


26 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


FEEDING  BOILERS. 

Q.  WILL  you  favor  a  novice  at  steam-fitting  with  an  answer  to  the 
following  problem?  There  is  a  manufacturing  establishment  in  this 
town  which  uses  six  steam-boilers.  These  boilers  are  27  feet  long 
and  4  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  in  two  gangs  of  three  boilers  each. 
The  water,  until  this  spring,  was  fed  into  the  boilers  by  means  of  two 
mud-drums,  H  H,  under  the  boilers,  from  a  Blake  double-acting  pump, 
A,  which  has  a  water-cylinder  of  6  inches  diameter  and  suction-pipe  of 

5  inches.  There  were 
two  branches  from  the 
pump,  one  for  each 
gang  of  boilers.  The 
heaters,  B  B,  are  close 
to  the  pump  and  about 
three  feet  from  the 
boilers.  The  water, 
after  leaving  the  heat- 
ers, went  into  the  mud- 
drums  through  the 
pipes  G',  under  each 

Up*  ;;-./      .*,,<-»•  gang-      These    mud' 

I jj     I I     drums  were  14  inches 

I  in    diameter    and    26 

feet  long,  and  were 
set  at  right  angles  to 
the  boilers.  They 
were  connected  to 
each  boiler  by  pipes 
10  inches  long  and  6 
inches  in  diameter. 
FIGURE  3.  This  arrangement  al- 

ways gave  good  satis- 
faction, so  far  as  the  feed  was  concerned.  The  mud-drums  showed 
signs  of  age  this  spring,  and  the  company  decided  to  do  away  with 
them.  They  did  so.  The  holes  in  the  bottoms  of  the  boilers  were 
closed  up,  and  a  hole  cut  in  the  back  end  of  each  boiler  3  inches  in 
diameter.  A  2-inch  pipe,  G,  was  led  from  each  heater  around  to  the 
back  of  the  boilers,  and  was  then  connected  with  a  3-inch  pipe,  C,  on 
each  gang.  These  3-inch  pipes  have  tees  in  them  opposite  each  boiler, 
and  a  3-inch  pipe,  C',  from  the  tees  to  each  boiler. 


BOILERS.  27 

This  arrangement  materially  increased  the  length  of  pipe.  The 
furthest  gang  has  now  60  feet  of  pipe,  without  including  the  heater, 
which  has  seven  2 -inch  pipes  7^  feet  long. 

In  pumping  up  the  boilers  after  repairing,  everything  worked  like 
a  charm  ;  but  when  steam  was  got  up  we  could  get  no  water  through 
the  pipes  at  all,  except  by  running  the  pump  at  such  a  high  rate  of 
speed  as  to  threaten  the  destruction  of  it  in  a  very  short  time. 

At  first  we  thought  it  was  the  pump.  It  was  taken  apart  and 
found  to  be  in  first-class  condition.  It  had  been  to  the  shop  this 
spring,  bored  out,  and  put  in  good  shape. 

How  can  you  explain  what  is  the  matter  ?  The  company  owns, 
three  establishments  of  this  kind,  situated  in  different  parts  of  the, 
country,  and  the  engineer  of  one  of  them  has  a  sort  of  supervision  over 
the  whole.  It  was  by  his  instructions  that  the  change  was  made,  and 
now,  when  it  doesn't  work,  he  condemns  the  pump,  but  cannot  find 
anything  the  matter  with  it.  Now  (i)  what  difference  would  it 
make  to  have  the  pipes  from  the  tees  in  feed-pipe  to  the  boiler 
reduced  to  two  inches  ?  This  would  give  a  2-inch  feed  into  a  3-inch  and 
2-ipch  to  the  boilers.  (2)  What  would  be  the  pressure  on  the  pump  if 
the  feed  was  put  into  the  mud-drums  again  ?  The  boilers  carry  a 
working  pressure  of  sixty  pounds. 

I  hope  I  have  made  this  plain  for  you  to  understand  what  I  mean, 
and,  in  case  I  have  not,  I  inclose  a  diagram  showing  the  position  of 
boilers,  etc.,  and  the  change  in  the  pipes. 

A.  i.  It  would  do  no  good  to  reduce  the  pipes  C'.  The  size  of  the 
pipes  have  nothing  to  do  with  pressure,  except  in  so  far  as  the  resist- 
ance to  the  flow  is  increased  or  decreased  with  the  diameter  of  the 
pipe. 

2.  The  pressure  on  the  water-end  of  the  pump  is  the  same  per 
square  inch  as  the  steam  carried  on  the  boiler,  plus  the  weight  of  a 
column  of  -water  equal  to  the  difference  of  level  of  the  water-line  of  the 
boiler  and  the  pump  ;  added  to  which  must  be  the  resistance  to  the 
flow  of  the  water  through  the  feed-pipes  and  heaters  when  you  are 
pumping.  This  resistance  is  generally  an  unknown  quantity,  and 
increases  in  a  ratio  about  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  flow,  and 
directly  as  the  length  of  the  pipes  when  they  are  straight  or  nicely 
curved,  but  in  a  much  more  rapid  ratio  in  ordinary  screwed  pipes  and 
fittings. 


28  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

In  your  case,  as  the  pipes  are  now  fitted,  the  resistance  to  the  flow 
is  enormously  increased  over  the  old  method,  and  presumably  you  have 
reached  a  point  where  the  leakage  around  the  piston  and  backward 
through  the  valves  is  such  that  only  by  quick  running  can  sufficient 
water  be  forced  through  the  pipes. 

You  give  no  data  by  which  we  can  find  the  quantity  of  water  used 
per  hour  ;  but  assuming  each  boiler  to  be  6o-horse-power,  the  quantity 
of  water  used  per  hour  cannot  be  short  of  14,400  pounds,  and  probably 
reaches  16,200  pounds  per  hour.  As  the  pumps  for  any  boilers  should 
be  capable  of  adding  four  times  as  much  water  as  the  boilers  can  evap- 
orate in  a  given  time,  so  as  to  be  able  to  "  catch  up  "  should  they  be 
stopped  for  a  time,  and  for  other  obvious  reasons,  it  will  in  your  case 
require  a  pump  capable  of  adding  water  to  the  boilers  at  the  rate  of, 
say,  60,000  pounds  per  hour,  or  1,000  pounds  per  minute,  to  do  which 
the  velocity  through  a  2-inch  pipe  at  the  pump  will  be  12  feet  per  second, 
and  the  pump  will  have  to  run  at  the  rate  of  120  strokes  to  the  minute, 
if  the  stroke  of  the  pump  is  8  inches,  making  no  allowance  for  leakage 
under  valves,  clearance,  or  loss  in  any  way,  which  may  bring  it  up  to 
150  strokes  per  minute. 

The  forcing-pipes,  G,  are  too  small  in  diameter,  as  the  velocity  per 
second  through  a  single  one  of  them  will  be  6  feet.  Two  feet  per 
second  is  a  fair  velocity  through  a  feed-pipe  and  its  valves  and  bends. 


BOILER-LUG. 

THE  illustration,  Figure  4,  represents  a  horizontal  boiler-//^  which 
is  separable. 

The  shoe  a  is  riveted  to  the  boiler-shell  before  the  tubes  are  put 
in,  so  as  to  admit  of  having  the  "point,"  or  driven  end,  of  the  rivet  on 
the  inside  of  the  shell.  The  bracket  d  slips  into  the  shoe,  forming  the 
"big" 

We  are  informed  that  the  driving  of  the  rivets  upon  the  inside 
insures  tightness,  as  it  admits  of  the  wrought-iron  or  steel  of  the  boiler 
being  drawn  and  hammered  tightly  against  the  casting,  whereas  if  the 


BOILERS.  29 

rivets  were  driven  on  the  outside  no  drawing  could  be  done  with  the 
hammers,  the  shaping  of  the  rivet  only  being  all  that  is  possible,  which 
will  generally  leave  a  leakage  past  the  head  of  the  rivet  and  out 
between  the  metals  of  the  plates. 

The  object  of  the  arrangement  is  to  admit  of  passing  a  boiler 


FIGURE  4. 

through   a  doorway  through  which  it  would  not  pass  if  the  lugs  were 
made  in  the  ordinary  way. 

W.  J.  Baldwin,  in  his  work  on  steam-heating,  page  67,  recommends 
these  boiler-lugs,  and  points  out  the  objections  to  the  method  of  rivet- 
ing lugs  to  a  boiler  after  the  tubes  are  in,  o~  to  bolting  them  on. 


ISOLATING-VALVES. 

THE  Mechanical  World  and  Steam-Users'  Journal  of  Decem- 
ber 24,  1884,  gives  the  illustrations  Figures  5  and  6,  which  represent 
a  valve  to  be  used  in  the  steam-supply  pipes  from  boilers  when  two  or 
more  boilers  are  to  be  connected  with  one  system  of  distribution. 
That  journal  refers  to  the  pleasure  it  affords  it  to  bring  the  important 
point  of  the  isolation  of  steam-boilers  before  its  readers,  says  the  ques- 
tion to  boiler-users  is  one  of  the  first  rank,  and  remarks  in  substance  : 

"When  two  or  more  boilers  are  worked  together  they  are  con- 
nected in  the  steam-outlets  and  become  one  machine.  A  branch-pipe 
containing  the  stop-valve  from  each  boiler  enters  the  main  steam-pipe> 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


and  when  the  valves  are  all  open  there  is  an  equilibrium  of  pressure 
throughout  the  whole  range,  however  much  or  little  either  of  the  boilers 
may  be  fired.  Now,  conditions  arise  'which  can  never  exist  in  a  single 
boiler.  When  only  one  boiler  is  used  the  various  appliances  upon  it 
can  be  affected  by  the  water  or  steam  contained  therein,  and  as  these 

appliances  are  made  of 
ample  size  for  the 
single  boiler  no  danger 
is  incurred.  But  when 
there  is  a  range  of 
boilers  connected  in 
their  steam-ways,  then 
any  one  of  these  boilers 
may  be  placed  so  that 
its  appliances  may 
have  to  do  duty  for 
the  whole  range,  and 
therefore  prove  inade- 
quate. It  is  customary 
to  apply  a  check-valve 
for  the  water-feed,  to 
prevent  such  water, 
after  it  has  entered 
the  boiler,  from  being 
driven  back  again  to 
other  boilers,  and  what 
is  wanted  is  a  similar 
check-valve  for  the 
steam — a  valve  that 
will  permit  the  exit  of 
steam  from  the  boiler, 
but  not  the  inlet.  If 
the  pressure  in  the  main  steam-pipe  rises  an  almost  infinitesimal  amount 
above  that  in  one  of  the  boilers,  that  boiler  should  be  automatically  and 
certainly  shut  off.  A  great  number  of  attempts  have,  we  believe,  been 


FIGURE  6. 
THE  ENGLISH  VALVE. 


BOILERS. 


made  to  achieve  this  result,  but  none  successfully  until  the  arrangement 
brought  out  some  time  ago  by  Messrs.  J.  Hopkinson  &  Co.,  of 
Huddersfield.  This  appliance  and  its  application  we  illustrate  here- 
with. Figure  5  is  a  section,  and  Figure  6  shows  the  mode  of  attach- 
ment to  boilers.  Referring  to  Figure  5,  A  is  a  brass  valve  closing 
upward  ;  it  is  connected  to  an  iron  float  or  plunger  submerged  in 
mercury  contained  in  the  cylinder  C.  The  inlet  of  steam  is  from  the 
right  hand.  The  iron  float  is  so  made  that  it  has  a  determinate 
amount  of  buoyancy  given  to  it ;  the  amount  usually  adopted  by  the 
makers  is  one-quarter 
of  a  pound  to  the 
square  inch.  When, 
therefore,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  inlet  is 
one-quarter  of  a 
pound  per  square  inch 
above  that  in  the 
main  steam-pipe  the 
valve  is  pressed  down- 
ward, and  the  steam 
flows  out ;  if,  how- 
ever, the  pressure  in 
the  boiler  and  main 
pipe  is  equal,  or  that 
in  the  boiler  is  less 
than  that  in  the  pipes, 
the  valve  floats  up 
and  is  closed.  If  the  valve  were  loose  in  its  spindle  it  would,  in  pass- 
ing the  steam,  strike  against  its  seat  violently  and  continuously,  but  in 
this  invention  this  action  does  not  take  place.  It  is  designed  to  close 
gently  and  without  the  least  impact,  because  while  the  float  moves  in 
mercury  contained  in  the  vessel  C,  practically  without  friction,  yet  it 
only  moves  at  a  comparatively  slow  rate,  because  the  speed  of  trans- 
ference of  the  mercury  through  the  annular  space  between  the  float 
and  cylinder  is  limited  to  a  fixed  amount.  This  valve  is  an  admirable 


FIGURE.  7. 
THE  AMERICAN  VALVE. 


32  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

addition  to  a  range  of  boilers  that  are  fitted  with  low-water  safety- 
valves.  Should  any  of  the  boilers  become  low  in  water  during  the 
night,  or  from  any  cause,  the  check-valve  will  prevent  steam  from  flow- 
ing in  from  the  other  boilers,  and  the  low-water  safety-valve  will  only- 
have  to  discharge  the  steam  from  its  own  boiler,  and  not  from  the 
range." 

The  claims  made  for  a  reliable  valve  of  this  kind  are  : 
"  It  will  completely  isolate  any  one  boiler  of  a  series,  and,  if  such 
boiler  be  empty,  will  act,  without  requiring  the  vigilant  watchfulness  of 
any  one,  as  a  self-acting  stop-valve.  It  will  be  a  protection  against  a 
leaky  stop-valve,  or  in  the  case  of  any  one  mischievously  or  unwittingly 
opening  the  stop-valve  when  the  boiler  is  off,  and  when  some  person 
perhaps  is  inside  cleaning  the  boiler  or  otherwise  engaged.  It  will 
obviate  the  risk  to  which  boiler  inspectors  have  been  subjected,  and 
entirely  relieve  them  from  the  constant  dread  which  has  haunted  them 
in  the  prosecution  of  their  duties.  It  will  be  a  protection  against  loss 
of  steam  from  all  the  boilers  in  the  case  of  any  one  of  a  set  becoming 
leaky  or  any  of  the  pipes  breaking  (other  than  the  main  pipe),  as  it 
renders  the  boilers  separate  and  distinct  from  the  others  under  such 
conditions,  while  for  all  normal  and  required  purposes  it  is  no  incon- 
venience whatever,  as  it  permits  the  steam  to  flow  in  the  ordinary  and 
appropriate  channels,  as  if  no  steam  check-valve  had  been  applied." 

While  not  wishing  to  question  the  enterprise  and  energy  of  Messrs. 
J.  Hopkinson  &  Co.,  we  are  forced  to  take  exception  to  the  statement 
that  "a  great  number  of  attempts  have  been  made  *  *  *  to  achieve 
this  result,  but  none  successfully  "  until  this  arrangement,  for  on  page 
172  of  the  Sanitary  Engineer  of  January  25,  1883,  a  valve  of  this  descrip- 
tion was  illustrated  and  described  as  in  successful  operation  in  the  plant 
of  the  New  York  Steam  Company,  at  "Station  B,"  on  Greenwich  Street, 
in  this  city,  where  we  suppose  the  largest  battery  of  boilers  in  the 
world  is  in  operation  day  and  night,  supplying  a  large  part  of  the  lower 
business  portion  of  New  York  with  steam  for  power  and  warming  pur- 
poses. The  full  extent  of  the  plant  is  sixty-four  boilers,  each  of  250- 
horse-power,  of  the  water-tube  pattern  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox,  aggregating 
16,000  horse-power,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  in  use.  This  valve 


BOILERS.  33 

we  reproduce — Figure  7 — and  we  have  been  informed  by  the  engineer-in- 
chief  (Mr.  Charles  E.  Emery)  that  the  valves  have  already  proved  their 
usefulness  and  silent  working,  as  in  the  case  of  a  split  header  in  one  of 
the  boilers,  when  no  one  could  approach  it  until  it  had  blown  off 
through  the  break,  when  the  valve  isolated  the  single  boiler  from  the 
others,  and  prevented  the  escape  of  the  immense  accumulation  of  steam 
in  miles  of  pipe. 

Who  the  inventor  is  we  do  not  know,  but  to  Mr.  Charles  E.  Emery, 
M.  E.  and  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  New  York  Steam  Company, 
belongs  the  credit  of  its  first  application  in  the  United  States. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  OIL  IN  BOILERS. 

THE  following  article  we  take  from  the  Locomotive,  to  show  the  effect  » 
of  at  least  one  quality  of  oil  in  boilers,  which  is  generally  understood  to 
be  a  mineral  oil.      About  the  danger  of  animal  oils  in  boilers  there 
appears  to  be  not  the  least  question,  but  many  do  not  hesitate  to  use  j 
large  quantities  of  cheap  mineral  oils  for  boiler-purging,  not  knowing 
or  not  considering  that  many  of  these  cheap  oils  are  little  better  than  a 
residuum  of  some  other  manufactured  products,  and  containing  many, 
if  not  all,  of  the  heavy  constituents  of  crude  petroleum,  and,  for  all  the    < 
public  may  know,  other  substances  which  have  been  added  in  the  man- 
ufacture for  the  purpose  of  giving  "  body  "  to  the  oils,  or  to  increase 
their  efficiency  as  lubricants.     As  so  many  of  our  readers  are  interested 
in  the  use,  construction,  and  maintenance  of  boilers,  we  print  nearly  in 
full: 

"  The  illustration  gives  a  better  idea  of  the  effect  produced  than 
pages  of  verbal  description  possibly  could.  It  is  from  a  photograph, 
and  is  in  no  wise  exaggerated. 

"The  boiler  from  which  the  plate  shown  in  the  cut  was  taken 
was  a  nearly  new  one.  It  was  made  of  a  well-known  brand  of  mild 
steel,  and  that  it  was  admirably  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  it 
was  used  was  proved  by  its  stretching  as  it  did  without  rupture.  The 
dimensions  of  bulge  shown  are  four  feet  lengthwise  of  the  boiler,  three 


34  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

feet  girthwise,  and  nine  inches  deep.  The  metal,  originally  five- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick,  drew  down  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  '  bag  '  without  the  slightest  indi- 
cation of  fracture. 

"  The  circumstances  under  which  the  bulge  occurred  may  best  be 
described  in  the  words  of  the  inspector  who  examined  the  boiler,  and 
are  as  follows : 

" '  Last  Tuesday  morning  I  was  called  in  great  haste  to  the 

Works.  Upon  arrival  I  found  one  of  the  boilers  badly  bulged,  and 
with  twenty  pounds  of  steam  up.  I  could  give  no  explanation  until  I 
had  thoroughly  examined  the  internal  parts  of  the  boiler.  I  gave 
directions  for  cooling  the  boiler,  and  ordered  top  manhole-plate  to  be 
loosened,  but  not  to  be  taken  out  until  my  arrival  in  the  afternoon,  that 

I  might  see  every- 
thing undisturbed. 
This  was  done.  On 
my  arrival  I  took  out 
the  manhole-plates  in 
top  of  shell  and  front 
head,  *  *  *  and 

FIGURE  8. 

made  an  examination. 

"  '  I  found  that  the  boiler  had  been  cleaned  the  preceding  Sunday, 
and  at  that  time  a  gallon  or  more  of  black  oil  had  been  thrown  into  it. 
Monday  morning  the  boiler  was  fired  up,  and  was  running  through  the 
day  at  a  pressure  of  90  pounds  per  square  inch.  At  six  o'clock  Monday 
night  the  engines  were  stopped,  the  draughts  were  closed,  and  no  more 
firing  was  done  until  nine  o'clock.  Upon  going  to  fire  up  at  this  time 
the  bulge  was  observed.  From  six  to  nine  o'clock  a  pressure  of  only  40 
pounds  was  carried. 

"  '  Upon  examination  I  found  the  entire  boiler  saturated  with  this 
oil.' 

"  This  is  almost  certain  to  be  the  result  of  putting  grease  into  a 
steam-boiler.  It  settles  down  on  the  fire-sheets  when  the  draught  is 
closed,  and  the  circulation  of  water  nearly  stops,  and  prevents  contact 
between  the  plates  and  the  water.  As  a  consequence,  the  plates  over 


BOILERS.  35 

the  fire  become  overheated,  and  under  such  circumstances  a  very  slight 
steam-pressure  is  sufficient  to  bag  the  sheets.  Unless  the  boiler  is 
made  of  very  good  material  the  plate  is  apt  to  be  fractured,  and  explo- 
sion is  likely  to  occur. 

"  When  oil  is  used  to  remove  scale  from  steam-boilers,  too  much 
care  cannot  be  exercised  to  make  sure  that  it  is  free  from  grease  or 
animal  oil.  Nothing  but  pure  mineral  oil  should  be  used.  Crude 
petroleum  is  one  thing  ;  black  oil,  which  may  mean  almost  anything,  is 
very  likely  to  be  something  quite  different. 

"The  action  of  grease  in  a  boiler  is  peculiar,  but  not  more  so  than 
we  might  expect.  It  does  not  dissolve  in  the  water,  nor  does  it  decom- 
pose ;  neither  does  it  remain  on  top  of  the  water,  but  it  seems  to  form 
itself  into  what  may  be  described  as  'slugs,'  which  at  first  seem  to  be 
slightly  lighter  than  the  water,  of  just  such  a  gravity,  in  fact,  that  the 
circulation  of  the  water  carries  them  about  at  will.  After  a  short 
season  of  boiling,  these  '  slugs '  or  suspended  drops  seem  to  acquire  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  '  stickiness,'  so  that  when  they  come  in  contact  with  shell 
and  flues  of  the  boiler  they  begin  to  adhere  thereto.  Then  under  the 
action  of  heat  they  begin  the  process  of  'varnishing  '  the  interior  of  the 
boiler.  The  thinnest  possible  coating  of  this  varnish  is  sufficient  to  bring 
about  overheating  of  the  plates,  as  we  have  found  repeatedly  in  our 
experience.  We  emphasize  the  point  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  a 
coating  of  grease  of  any  appreciable  thickness  to  cause  overheating  and 
bagging  of  plates  and  leakage  at  seams." 


IRON    RIVETS   IN    STEEL   BOILER-PLATES. 

IN  a  paper  read  before  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects  by 
J.  G.  Wildish,  M.  I.  N.  A.,  he  points  out  that  iron  rivets  in  steel  plates 
shear  at  a  less  pressure  than  the  same  rivets  in  iron  plates,  and  goes  on 
to  say  : 

"Some  further  experiments  were  made  at  Pembroke,  in  1878,  with 
iron  rivets  in  steel  plates  ;  -jSg-inch  and  24 -inch  plates  were  used,  made 
by  the  Landore  Steel  Company,  the  rivets  for  connecting  the  test- 
pieces,  which  were  jointed  with  a  double-riveted  strap  to  represent  the 


36  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

butts  of  outside  plating,  being  24 -inch  and  ^j-inch  respectively.  In 
some  of  the  tests  the  countersinking  of  the  holes  was  carried  right 
through  the  plates,  and  in  others  to  within  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  of 
the  full  thickness.  This  variation,  however,  gave  no  appreciable  advan- 
tage either  way  ;  but  from  these  experiments  it  appeared  that  the 
average  single  shearing  stress  of  the  24 -inch  iron  rivet  in  steel  plates 
was  only  8.1  tons  as  compared  with  the  10  tons  for  the  same  rivet  in 
iron  plates.  The  mean  single  shearing  stress  of  the  ^6-inch  rivet  was 
11%  tons,  which,  after  allowing  for  the  difference  in  size,  is  a  somewhat 
better  result  than  just  given  for  the  ^-inch  rivet,  but  is  still  2.1  tons 
less  than  for  the  same  rivet  in  iron  plates.  This  comparative  weakness 
of  the  iron  rivets  when  used  for  connecting  steel  plates  was  met  by 
making  the  rivets  larger,  as  well  as  by  placing  them  closer  together, 
but  the  larger  rivets  involved  broader  laps  for  the  plating,  thus  objec- 
tionably increasing  its  weight  as  a  whole. 

"  Precisely  similar  experiments  to  those  just  alluded  to  were  made 
in  1880,  except  that  steel  rivets  were  used  instead  of  iron.  The  results 
of  these  experiments  were  exceedingly  uniform  and  satisfactory.  They 
showed  that  11%  to  n^  tons  might  be  allowed  for  the  single  shear  of 
2^-inch  steel  rivet  in  steel  plates,  and  14^  tons  for  a  ^3-inch  rivet. 
Great  care  was  taken  in  the  manufacture  of  the  steel  rivets ;  and  to 
insure  their  being  of  uniformly  good  quality,  a  code  of  tests  was  pre- 
pared for  guidance  in  making  them." 

[This  is  a  matter  that  should  be  thoroughly  considered  by  makers 
of  mild-steel  boilers  in  this  country.  Where  the  boilers  are  built  under 
the  specification  and  direction  of  an  engineer  the  danger  is  not  so  great, 
as  he  either  provides  for  steel  rivets  or  decreases  the  pitch  of  the  holes, 
so  that  the  remaining  steel  of  the  plates  and  the  strength  of  the  iron 
rivets  nearly  balance  ;  but  those  who  still  adhere  to  the  old  empirical 
rule — that  twice  the  thickness  of  the  plate  equals  the  diameter  of  rivet 
and  three  times  diameter  of  rivet  equals  the  pitch  of  holes — and  who 
have  a  set  of  templates  that  were  laid  out  when  they  were  young,  but 
who  are  now  building  mild-steel  boilers,  would  do  well  to  get  informa- 
tion on  this  subject,  and  if  they  do  not  consider  the  importance  of  the 
matter,  the  architects  and  steam  engineers  who  do  business  with  them 
should,  as  the  intelligent  boiler-maker  charges  no  more  for  good  work 
than  the  "  don't  know  "  or  "don't  care  "  one  does  for  indifferent  work. 
—ED.] 


BOILERS.  37 

PROPORTIONS   FOR   RIVETS. 

IN  the  Locomotive  for  June,  1885,  is  given,  with  illustrations,  what 
the  inspectors  of  the  Hartford  Boiler  Insurance  Company  have  found  by 
experience  to  be  good  proportions  for  hand-driven  rivets  for  boiler- 
shells.  In  the  proportions  for  plates  J^-inch  thick  the  size  of  the  rivet 
should  be  ^4  of  an  inch  in  diameter  by  i^  inches  long.  The  rivet- 
holes  should  be  from  \\  to  fj-  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  diameter  of 
the  base  of  the  conical  head  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  plate 
should  be  i^  inches  in  diameter.  The  height  of  head,  from  base  to 
apex  of  cone,  should  be  ^/z  of  an  inch.  To  form  this  head,  as  well  also 
as  to  furnish  metal  enough  to  properly  fill  the  rivet-hole,  the  rivet  must 
project  ^j  of  an  inch,  before  driving,  beyond  the  plate.  This  is  secured 
by  using  rivets  i^  inches  long,  as  before  stated. 

In  the  proportions  for  -^-inch  plates,  the  rivet  used  should  be  ^  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  The  diameter  of  the  head  should  be  i|4  inches, 
its  height  j\  of  an  inch.  The  rivet-hole  will  be  from  -^  to  T^-  larger 
than  the  original  diameter  of  the  rivet-shank,  or  from  ff  to  ^  of 
an  inch.  To  form  this  head  and  furnish  metal  enough  to  properly 
fill  the  rivet-hole  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  a  rivet  1-^3  inches  in 
length. 

In  the  proportion  of  rivets  in  ^-inch  plates,  the  holes  as  punched 
will  vary  from  ff  to  y3^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  diameter  of  the 
base  of  the  hand-driven  head  should  be  not  less  than  \y2  inches,  and 
its  height  5^  of  an  inch.  To  fill  this  hole  and  properly  form  the  head  it 
will  be  necessary  to  use  a  24 -inch  rivet  1^6  inches  in  length. 

For  Jg-inch  plates  a  Tf-inch  rivet  should  be  used,  the  hole  as 
punched  being  from  ||  to  ]/%  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Diameter  of  head 
at  base  i^  inches,  height  11  inch.  The  length  of  rivet  required  will  be 
two  inches. 

For  ^ -inch  plates,  which  is  the  thickest  that  should  ever  be  used 
for  tubular-boiler  shells,  a  ^3 -inch  rivet,  2%  inches  long,  will  be  found 
necessary  to  properly  fill  the  hole,  which  will  be  generally  ff-  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  form  the  head,  which  should  be  i^  inches  in  diameter 
and  24  °f  an  inch  high. 


M  A  0-f 


38  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

The  foregoing  are  the  minimum  lengths  of  rivets  and  sizes  of  heads 
which  should  be  used  for  hand-riveting,  and  Figure  9  shows  the  propor- 
tion one-third  full  size. 

The  other  figures  show  two  excellent  specimens  of  machine-driven 
rivets.  The  thickness  of  plate  used  in  each  case  is  ^3  of  an  inch.  In 
each  the  spread  of  the  rivet  or  diameter  of  the  head  is  i^  inches,  and 


FIGURE  9.  FIGURE  10.  FIGURE  n. 

the  height  in  Figure  10  is  ^  inch  and  in  Figure  n  ^  inch.  To  make 
these  heads  as  shown,  each  rivet  would  necessarily  be  two  inches  in 
length  by  ^  inch  original  diameter. 

The  centre  figure  (10)  was  received  from  the  Baldwin  Locomotive- 
Works,  of  Philadelphia,  and  the  one  on  the  right  (n)  from  the  Cun- 
ningham Iron-Works,  of  Boston. 


WATER   IN   BOILERS. 

Q.  WHAT  would  be  the  condition  of  the  water  in  a  boiler  used 
continuously,  over  and  over,  without  any  new  water  being  added,  the 
boiler  being  part  of  a  gravity  return-heating  apparatus  ?  Would  it  be 
dangerous  ? 

A.  We  do  not  understand  what  danger  you  particularly  refer  to. 
The  only  salt  deposited  to  any  extent  in  the  boiler  would  be  carbonate  of 
lime,  for  there  would  always  be  enough  water  in  the  boiler  to  hold  the 
soluble  salts  in  solution.  The  water  returning  from  the  radiators  is 
practically  distilled  water,  and  contains  no  salts. 


BOILERS. 


39 


ACCIDENT  WITH  CONNECTED  BOILERS.* 
THE  feed-tank  explosion  reminds  me  of  an  accident,  or  rather 
disaster,  that  came  under  my  observation  some  time  ago,  arising,  like 
the  one  you  described,  from  simple  oversight,  and  unfortunately 
attended,  in  like  manner,  with  fatal  consequences.  As  the  cause  of  the 
disaster  was  somewhat  unique,  it  may  perhaps  be  of  interest  to  your 
readers,  and  help  to  point  the  moral  you  drew  from  the  explosion 
described  by  you — viz.,  the  importance  of  constant  care  and  vigilance 
on  the  part  of  those  who  have  to  do  with  the  fixing  of  steam  apparatus. 
I  therefore  venture  to  send  you  a  description,  and  inclose  a  sketch  in 
case  you  should  think  it  well  to  give  it  a  place  in  your  columns. 

There  were  two  boilers  set  side  by  side,  as  shown  in  Figure  12, 
No.  i  being  at  rest, 
while  No.  2  was  at 
work.  Between  the  two 
boilers  there  was  an  ex- 
pansion-joint, the  end 
of  the  pipe  D  working 
quite  freely  in  the  stuff- 
ing-box and  gland  at 
E.  In  order  to  effect 
some  repairs  to  the 
stop-valve  A  on  No.  i 
boiler,  the  valve  B  was 
shut  down  and  a 

blank  flange  inserted  at  the  joint  C.  After  this  the  valve  B  was  opened 
again,  and  the  mechanic  commenced  to  take  out  the  bolts  securing  the 
the  valve  A  to  No.  i  boiler,  and  had  taken  out  two  or  three  when  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  acting  on  the  blank  flange  at  C  shot  the  expansion- 
joint  E  along  with  the  valve  A  right  off  the  end  of  the  pipe  D,  which 
was  drawn  out  of  the  stuffing-box  and  gland  at  E,  just  like  an  arm  is 
drawn  out  of  a  sleeve.  In  consequence  of  this  the  steam  rushed  out  of 
No.  2  boiler  through  the  open  end  of  the  pipe  D,  which  was  about  six 


FIGURE  12. 


*  From  an  English  exchange. 


4O  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

inches  in  diameter,  and  scalded  the  man  to  death,  and  also  injured  two 
others  who  happened  to  be  in  the  firing  place  at  the  time.  The  man 
would  appear  to  have  been  under  the  impression  that  the  stuffing-box 
E  was  in  some  way  connected  to  the  pipe  D,  for  it  is  almost  incredible 
to  think  that  a  skilled  mechanic  would  willfully  commit  such  a  blunder, 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  sort  of  easy- 
going careless  indifference  that  sometimes  prevails,  and  for  which  the 
poor  fellow  in  this  case  paid  a  terrible  price. 


A    SUPPOSED   CASE   OF   CHARRING    WOOD    BY 
STEAM-PIPES. 

Q.  I  HAVE  a  piece  of  wood  about  6"  x  8"  x  3"  that  was  jammed 
in  between  the  drum  of  a  steam-boiler  as  a  wedge  to  brace  a  partition, 
a  sketch  of  which  (Figure  13)  I  send. 


ooooooooooo 
ooooooooooo 
ooooooooooo 

0000000 OO 

o  o  o  o  oo  o 
CD 


FIGURE  13. 

A— Block  of  wood  badly  charred. 

B— Beams  carrying  floor  C,  forming  ceiling  of  boiler-room. 
D— Windows  in  sides  of  caboose  E,  which  is  tightly  built  around  drum  of  boiler  F. 


BOILERS.  41 

It  is  the  worst  case  of  charring  by  steam-heat  I  ever  saw  ;  in  fact,  I 
never  saw  anything  like  it  before,  and  were  I  not  quite  sure  of  the 
facts,  I  would  not  believe  it  possible  for  the  heat  of  steam  to  do  the 
damage  it  shows.  It  had  been  in  position  between  four  and  five 
months  ;  steam  carried  between  50  and  60  Ibs.,  for  12  hours  per  day. 
It  was  in  such  a  position  that  there  was  no  circulation  of  air  around  it. 
If  you  would  like  to  see  it,  I  will  send  it  by  express.  I  think  it  would 
do  to  write  an  article  on  it,  and  perhaps  to  illustrate.  I  may  add  that  a 
beam  with  which  it  came  in  contact  was  charred  a  brown  color  and  fell 
three  inches  away  from  the  drum.  The  entire  absence  of  circulation  of 
air  is  my  only  explanation  of  the  case.  There  was  no  oil  nor  any- 
thing of  that  kind  near  it ;  in  fact,  it  was  in  a  very  awkward  place  to 
get  at.  I  will  try  and  sketch  its  position.  Yours,  J.  W.  H. 

In  a  later  letter  Mr.  H.  writes  : 

"  I  send  charred  wood  by  express,  to-day.  Have  examined  the 
place  the  wood  came  out  of  carefully  again,  with  a  trained  practical 
scientist,  and  we  found  no  cause  to  account  for  the  charring  other  than 
the  heat  of  the  steam,  unless  the  wood  itself  contained  something." 

A.  We  have  had  the  wood  carefully  examined  by  one  who  has  had 
much  experience  in  this  line,  and  he  is  of  the  opinion  that  although,  to 
an  ordinary  observer,  the  wood  has  all  the  appearance  of  having  been 
in  a  blaze  at  one  time  and  quenched,  it  is  a  bona-fide  case  of  charcoal 
forming,  and  that  a  spark  has  never  formed  on  it. 

Wood  which  takes  fire  and  burns  ordinarily  never  chars  to  any 
considerable  depth  ahead  of  the  flame,  and  when  the  fire  is  extin- 
guished the  wood  is .  found  intact  one-quarter  of  an  inch  from  the 
surface  of  the  blackened  brand,  but  in  this  case  the  charring  has  pene- 
trated two  to  three  inches  into  the  wedge,  which  is  an  indication  of 
a  steadily  applied  heat,  but  at  a  temperature  too  low  to  cause  flame. 

A  temperature  of  308°  Fah.  (the  temperature  of  60  Ibs.  of  steam) 
is  generally  considered  not  sufficient  to  make  charcoal  from  the  most 
easily  burned  woods  ;  but  in  the  case  of  boilers  and  steam-pipes,  too 
much  dependence  must  not  be  placed  on  this  supposition,  as  continued 
superheating  of  the  steam  by  an  improperly  set  boiler  maybe  the  means 
of  giving  much  higher  temperatures. 

Assuming  that  a  temperature  due  to  60  Ibs.  of  steam  at  maximum 
density  cannot  char  wood,  steam  can  b'e  superheated  without 


42  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

materially  increasing  its  pressure  until  it  will  make  the  pipe  through 
which  it  passes  red. 

In  the  present  instance  the  probabilities  are  that  the  boiler  in 
question  has  been  overheated — a  thing  not  likely  to  be  acknowledged 
by  the  engineer  at  this  late  date,  even  should  the  boiler  show  slight 
signs  of  it  by  leaking  or  by  wrinkles  in  any  of  its  sheets. 

Our  own  impression  is,  that  the  temperatures  at  which  woody 
carbon  and  its  gases  spring  into  flame  are  as  fixed  as  the  temperature 
at  which  water  boils  ;  but  that  condition  which  will  produce  this  result 
may  be  brought  about  in  ways  not  readily  accounted  for  without 
knowing  the  minutest  details  of  the  existing  conditions. 

If  cotton  were  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  it  would  not  ignite  by 
spontaneous  combustion,  as  a  greasy  cloth  will  prove  if  you  lay  it  flat 
for  an  indefinite  time  ;  but  make  a  ball  of  it,  so  the  heat  produced  by 
the  chemical  reaction  cannot  pass  off  rapidly  enough,  and  the  result  is 
heat  and  fire. 


DOMESTIC  BOILERS. 

ABERDEEN,  SCOTLAND. 

Q.  i.  How  LONG  will  a  properly  galvanized-iron  (hot  water)  cistern 
last  ?  Why  does  this  kind  of  cistern  rust  inside  and  the  rust  appear 
outside  ? 

2.  Is  there  any  objection  to  a  copper  cistern  tinned  inside  (for  hot 
water)  ? 

3.  Can  you  recommend  any  other  kind  of  cistern  for  a  water-heat- 
ing system  ? 

A.  i.  Our  galvanized-iron  domestic,  or  range  boilers,  as  we  call  them 
in  this  country,  have  been  in  use  about  fifteen  years.  They  do  not  rust 
on  the  inside  sufficient  to  affect  the  color  of  the  water,  if  in  constant 
use,  because  they  are  closed  from  the  atmosphere,  and  their  outside 
appearance  is  always  the  same.  They  have  come  into  general  use 
because  they  are  cheaper  than  copper  tinned  inside  of  equal  strength. 

2.  If  the  price  was  not  a  consideration,  we  should  prefer  copper 
tinned  inside.  As  we  understand  the  practice  in  Great  Britain,  the  hot- 
water  tank,  or  boiler,  as  .we  call  it,  is  placed  alongside  or  near  the  cold 


43 


tank,  and  is  not  closed  to  the  air.  In  such  a  case  we  should  say  that 
the  galvanized-iron  would  soon  rust  and  discolor  the  water. 

3.  In  the  large  apartment-houses  of  this  city  tanks  of  %-inch  or 
-^-inch  boiler-iron,  from  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter  by  from  six  to 
ten  feet  in  length,  cylindrical  in  shape,  with  a  manhole  in  one  head, 
are  used  for  warming  water,  the  warming  agent  being  generally  the 
exhaust  steam  from  the  elevator  engines,  or  pump  for  the  hydraulic  ele- 
.vators,  the  thermal  value  of  which  is  used  this  way.  The  sketch  (Fig- 
ure 14)  shows  how 
these  tanks  appear. 
Should  the  exhaust- 
pipe  be  three  inches 
in  diameter  it  is  taken 
to  one  end  of  the  tank 
and  carried  back  and 
forth  within  it  for  a 
number  of  times,  gen- 
erally four,  forming  a 
coil ;  thence  passes  to 
the  roof  of  the  build- 
ing, the  condensed 
water  being  separated 
at  the  lowest  corner 
before  it  ascends. 
These  tanks  are  under 
pressure  at  all  times. 
Water  ironi  a  house- 
supply  tank  at  the 

roof  is  brought  down  into  them,  entering  at  the  bottom  and  leaving 
again  at  the  top,  warmed,  and  of  course  rising  within  the  building  to  an 
equal  height  with  the  house-tank.  The  warm  supply  from  these  tanks 
to  the  fixtures  is  sometimes  fitted  with  a  circulation-pipe  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  warm  water  constantly  near  the  fixture.  This  pipe 
returns  parallel  to  the  rising  pipe  and  enters  the  tank  at  the  bottom. 
A  good  way  is  to  carry  a  small  pipe  (three-eighths  of  an  inch)  from  the 


FIGURE  14. 


44  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

head  of  these  circulating  lines  to  a  height  three  or  four  feet  above  the 
house-tank,  to  act  as  an  air-escape,  and  again  to  facilitate  drawing  the 
water  from  the  line,  should  it  be  shut  off  for  repairs,  by  allowing  the  air 
to  draw  in  at  the  top.  On  pages  145  and  193  of  the  tenth 
volume  of  the  Sanitary  Engineer  may  be  seen  representations  of  domes- 
tic boilers  and  their  connections. 


VALUE  OF  HEATING  SURFACES. 


COMPUTING    THE    AMOUNT    OF    FUEL    FOR    WARMING 
BUILDINGS. 

Q.  IF  it  is  within  the  province  of  your  esteemed  journal  to 
answer  the  following  questions  in  your  columns  at  an  early  date  you 
will  confer  a  favor  on  myself,  and,  I  have  no  doubt,  on  other  young 
men  in  the  profession  : 

First — How  am  I  to  proceed  to  find  approximately  the  amount  of 
fuel  necessary  for  a  given  duty  in  the  warming  of  air  of  buildings  when 
direct  radiation  alone  is  used  ? 

Second — How  am  I  to  proceed  when  indirect  radiation  is  used  ? 

Any  data  on  the  above  questions  will  be  thankfully  received. 

A.  Accurate  figures  on  these  subjects  are  difficult  to  obtain,  as  the 
results  must  depend  on  the  conditions  found  to  exist  in  any  particular 
building.  When  a  building  has  large  glass  surfaces,  or  is  composed  of 
iron,  or  is  unfurred — plastered  on  the  outer  hard  walls — the  air  within 
it  is  cooled  more  rapidly  than  in  ordinary  buildings  with  average  win- 
dows and  other  average  conditions.  This  air  is  cooled  by  contact  with 
the  surfaces  of  the  windows  and  walls,  and  these  may  be  termed  the 
"  cooling  surfaces  "  of  the  building.  To  counteract  this  cooling  of  the 
air,  "heating-surfaces"  must  be  added  in  the  form  of  pipes  or 
radiators. 

The  shape,  position,  and  nature  of  the  heating-surfaces  are  now 
factors,  as  well  as  the  pressure  of  steam  to  be  carried,  in  determining 
the  proportion  of  surface  for  a  given  condition.  It  is  here  that  the 
greatest  difficulty  presents  itself,  and  the  steam-engineer  has  nothing 
more  than  averages  to  depend  on  for  his  guidance.  In  the  case 
of  small  corner  rooms,  with  low-pressure  steam,  one  square  foot  of 
average  radiator-surface  to  each  50  cubic  feet  of  air-space  is  generally 
considered  ample,  but  this  in  itself  is  only  a  basis  for  an  average. 


46  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

With  large  rooms  i  to  60  is  often  enough,  and  in  halls  and  stores  i  to 
100  is  usually  considered  sufficient,  while  many  auditoriums  and  churches 
are  found  to  contain  a  lower  ratio  still,  i  to  150  proving  enough. 
After  the  heating-surface  is  determined  for  direct  radiation  the  fuel 
used  for  a  given  time  may  then  be  approximately  determined  as  fol- 
lows :  With  low-pressure  steam  the  condensation  per  square  foot  of 
radiator  of  usual  shape,  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  70°  Fah.,  is 
about  .25  of  a  pound  of  water  per  hour,  and  after  the  building  is 
warmed  with  high-pressure  steam  it  is  likely  to  reach  .33  of  a  pound  of 
water  per  hour. 

If,  now,  the  rooms  of  your  building  to  be  warmed  contain  1,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  air,  and  you  have,  say,  10,000  square  feet  of  radiation  sur- 
face in  it,  at  a  pressure  not  exceeding  5  pounds,  you  will  have  10,000  X 
.25  =  2,500  as  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  to  be  evaporated  in  the 
boilers  or  condensed  in  the  coils  and  pipes  in  an  hour.  With  good 
boiler  practice  it  is  then  safe  to  assume  that  you  can  re-evaporate  every 
ten  pounds  of  this  condensed  water  from  the  temperature  at  which  it  is 
likely  to  return  to  the  boiler  (about  200°  Fah.)  to  steam  again  with  one 
pound  of  coal.  With  this,  then,  you  will  have  2,500  pounds  water 
•s-  10  =  250  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  as  the  least  amount  of  fuel  reason- 
ably necessary  for  your  1,000,000  cubic  feet  of  air  when  all  the  radia- 
tors are  in  use.  Good  practice  may  reduce  this  slightly,  but  it  is  just 
as  likely  to  be  exceeded. 

In  the  case  of  indirect  radiation  the  method  of  proceeding  is  some- 
what different.  There  the  condensation  is  more  of  an  unknown  quan- 
tity per  square  foot  of  radiator,  and  it  will  vary  with  the  outside  changes  ; 
but  it  admits  of  closer  calculation  when  the  amount  of  air  to  be  passed 
into  the  building  in  a  given  time  is  known,  for  the  reason  that  there 
can  be  no  question  then  of  the  units  of  heat  required,  as  all  the  air  that 
enters  must  be  warmed  with  an  efficient  apparatus,  whereas  with  direct 
radiation  no  close  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  units  of  heat  applied  to 
the  air,  other  than  by  finding  the  amount  of  water  condensed,  or  by 
assuming  it  from  practical  averages,  though  one  practical  authority 
assumes  it  to  be  one  cubic  foot  of  air  cooled  from  the  temperature  of 
the  room  to  that  of  the  outside  air  in  a  minute  for  each  square  foot  of 


VALUE    OF    HEATING    SURFACES.  47 

glass,  but  he  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  values  of  other  cool- 
ing surfaces. 

Again,  take  the  case  of  a  building  with  1,000,000  cubic  feet  of 
air  in  it,  and  in  which  the  air  is  to  be  changed  four  times  in  an  hour. 
This  gives  you  4,000,000  cubic  feet  of  air  which  is  to  be  warmed  from 
the  temperature  of  the  outside  air  to,  say,  75°  Fah.  If,  now,  you 
assume  the  average  mean  temperature  outside  to  be  35°  Fah.  for  a 
given  time,  you  will  have  to  warm  4,000,000  cubic  feet  of  air  40  degrees 
in  each  hour,  which  is  equal  to  warming  160,000,000  cubic  feet  of  air  one 
degree.  The  heat  given  off  by  the  cooling  of  one  pound  of  water  one 
degree  may  now  be  approximately  taken  as  the  warming  of  50  cubic 
feet  of  air  one  degree,  which  will  give  160,000,000  •*-  50  =  3,200,000  the 
equivalent  of  3,200,000  heat  units.  You  may  then  assume  the  conver- 
sion of  one  pound  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  the  average  return- 
water  to  steam  at  low  pressures  to  be  equal  to  1,000  heat  units.  This, 
then,  will  give  you  3,200,000  -*-  1,000  =  3,200  pounds  of  water  to  be 
converted  to  steam,  and,  as  before  mentioned,  if  the  boilers  are  capable 
of  evaporating  this  hot  water  with  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of  coal,  you 
will  require  just  320  pounds  of  coal  per  hour. 

This  gives  approximately  the  fuel  required,  without  taking  into 
consideration  the  loss  of  heat  in  the  main  pipes,  which  should  be  fully 
covered  by  an  addition  of  ten  per  cent. 


COMPUTING  AMOUNT   OF   RADIATOR-SURFACE   FOR 
WARMING   BUILDINGS   BY   HOT   WATER. 

CHATHAM,  ONT. 

Q.  HAVING  read  your  very  instructive  discussion  on  "  Com- 
puting the  Amount  of  Fuel  for  Warming  Buildings,"  I  have  taken 
the  liberty  of  troubling  you  for  some  information  on  heating  by 
hot  water.  Our  Government  has  just  completed  its  new  building  here, 
and  it  is  heated  by  hot  water,  and  so  successfully  that  a  number  of  our 
citizens  are  thinking  of  warming  their  residences  in  the  same  manner. 
Direct  radiation  is  the  system  adopted.  As  there  is  some  diversity  of 
opinion  relative  to  the  proportion  of  radiator-surface  to  cubic  feet  of 


48 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


air-space,  I  ask  you  for  information,  and  would  like  to  know  what  is 
the  rule  or  average  generally  adopted,  making  allowance,  of  course,  for 
exposed  rooms.  Taking  steam  as  a  standard  at  i  to  50,  and  being  the 
hotter  of  the  two,  would  i  to  35  be  the  proportion  for  hot  water? 
Kindly  give  me  all  the  particulars  you  can  in  reference  to  the  system. 

A.  The  discussion  referred  to  is  that  immediately  preceding. 
Hood  says  that  the  burning  of  one  pound  of  coal  may  be  safely 
estimated  to  add  7,000  heat  units  to  the  water  in  hot-water  boilers.  It 
is  reasonable  to  assume  that  this  will  be  so,  as  it  is  but  one-half  of  the 
theoretical  value  of  the  average  coal.  He  states,  also,  that  when  pipes 
four  inches  in  diameter  are  146.8°  Fah.  hotter  than  the  air  of  the  room 
the  water  contained  in  them  cools  exactly  the  equivalent  of  i°  Fah.  per 
minute,  if  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  maintained  constant.  This, 
presumably,  is  the  actual  result  for  some  particular  condition  or  position 
of  the  pipes  for  direct  radiation,  and  may  be  taken  as  an  average. 

From  this  he  calculates  the  following  table  for  100  feet  in  length 
of  the  different  sizes  of  pipes  in  general  use,  the  quantities  given  in 
the  table  being  pounds  and  tenths  of  a  pound  : 

Table  of  the  Quantity  of  Coal  used  per  hour  to  heat  100  feet  in  length  of  pipe  of 
different  sizes. 


Diameter 
of  Pipe  in 
Inches. 

Difference  between  the  Temperature  of  the  Pipe  and  the  Room  in  Degrees  of  Fahrenheit. 

150 

145 

140 

135 

130 

125 

120 

"5 

no 

105 

100 

95 

90 

85 

80 

4 

4-7 

4-5 

4-4 

4.2 

4-1 

3.9 

3-7 

3-6 

3-4 

3-2 

3-1 

2.9 

2.8 

2.6 

2-5 

3 

3-5 

3-4 

3-3 

3-1 

3-0 

2.9 

2.8 

2-7 

2-5 

2.4 

2-3 

2.2 

2.1 

2.0 

1.8 

2 

2-3 

2.2 

2.2 

2.1 

2.0 

1.9 

1.8 

1.8 

1-7 

1.6 

1-5 

1.4 

1.4 

1-3 

1.2 

I 

I.I 

I.I 

I.I 

I.O 

I.O 

•9 

•9 

•9 

.8 

.8 

•7 

•  7 

•  7 

.6 

.6 

To  find  the  quantity  of  hot-water  pipe  necessary  for  direct  radia- 
tion proceed  as  follows  :  Take  the  difference  in  degrees  Fahren- 
heit between  the  temperature  at  which  you  will  be  able  to  maintain 
your  hot-water  pipes  and  the  temperature  you  wish  to  maintain  the 
room  at  for  a  divisor,  and  the  difference  between  the  coldest  outside 


VALUE  OF  HEATING  SURFACES.  49 

weather  and  the  temperature  you  wish  to  maintain  your  room  at  for  a 
uividend,  when  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  square  feet,  or  frac- 
tion thereof,  of  surface  of  hot-water  pipe  to  each  square  foot  of 
glass-surface  in  the  building.  Thus  :  mean  temperature  of  pipes  150° 
Fah.  —  temperature  of  room  (70°)  =  80°.  Again,  temperature  of  room, 
70°  —  temperature  outside  (o°)  =  70  -*-  80  =  .875.  To  this  should  be 
added  from  30  per  cent,  to  60  per  cent,  for  cooling  of  walls  and  cold 
air  entering  at  doors  and  windows. 


CALCULATING  THE  RADIATING-SURFACE  FOR  HEATING 
BUILDINGS— THE  SAVING  OF  DOUBLE- 
GLAZING  WINDOWS. 

Q.  PLEASE  be  kind  enough  to  publish  in  an  early  issue  of  your 
valuable  paper  some  simple  rules  for  calculating  the  necessary  amount 
of  radiating-surface  for  heating  buildings  with  steam  or  hot  water. 
Please  give  rules  according  to  the  amount  of  glass,  amount  and  quality 
of  walls  ;  also  the  difference  between  single  and  double  glass. 

A.  W.  J.  Baldwin,  in  his  "  Hints  to  Steam-Fitters,"  says : 
"  Divide  the  difference  in  temperature  between  that  at  which  the  room 
is  to  be  kept  and  the  coldest  outside  atmosphere  by  the  difference 
between  the  temperature  of  the  steam-pipes  and  that  at  which  the 
room  is  to  be  kept,  and  the  product  will  be  the  surface  in  square  feet 
of  plate  or  pipe  surface  for  each  square  foot  of  glass,  or  its  equivalent 
in  wall-surface."  This  gives  about  one  square  foot  of  radiating-surface 
to  each  two  square  feet  of  glass  for  low-pressure  steam.  He  also 
considers  that  from  7.5  to  10  square  feet  of  ordinary  outside  wall  cools 
as  much  air  as  a  square  foot  of  glass,  or,  say,  we  require  one  square 
foot  of  radiator  to  15  square  feet  of  outside  wall.  This  does  not 
provide  for  warming  any  outside  air  that  may  enter,  and  is  seldom 
sufficient  for  ordinary  practice.  At  least  one-half  more,  or  .75  of  a 
square  foot,  is  generally  required. 

With  regard  to  the  saving  of  heat  by  double  glazing,  General 
Meigs  has  pointed  out  that  about  one-third  less  heat  is  lost  through  two 


50  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

glasses  placed  with  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  between  them  than 
through  a  single  glass,  but  from  this  we  must  not  assume  that  one-third 
less  radiating-surface  will  do  in  such  a  room,  as  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  radiating-surface  is  proportioned  according  to  all  the  circum- 
stances, walls,  ventilation,  etc.,  and  that  the  heat  saved  is  proportionate 
only  to  the  number  of  square  feet  of  radiating-surface  necessary  to 
counteract  a  given  window  area.  For  instance,  if  a  room  required 
seventy-five  square  feet  of  radiating-surface,  although  the  windows 
had  but  sixty  feet  of  glass-surface,  ten  square  feet  of  radiating- 
surface  would  be  the  reduction,  according  to  Baldwin's  value  for  single 
glass. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  New  York,  deductions  based  on  the  direct 
radiating-surface,  compared  to  the  cubic  space,  give  averages  with 
steam-pipes  about  as  follows  :  Office-rooms,  one  square  foot  of 
radiating-surface  to  each  75  cubic  feet  of  air-space  ;  stores,  one  square 
foot  to  100  cubic  feet ;  lofts  and  upper  stories,  one  square  foot  to  125 
or  150;  churches  and  large  auditoriums,  one  square  foot  to  150  or  200. 

The  smaller  a  room  is  the  greater  the  percentage  of  outside  wall 
and  window  to  the  cubic  contents.  A  room  ic/xio'xio'  =  1,000  cubic 
feet  may  be  a  corner  room  and  have  two  windows  and  two  cold  sides, 
and  require  about  25  square  feet  of  surface.  The  next  room  to  it  may 
be  i4'-h2"xi4'+2"xio'  high  =  2,000  square  feet,  very  nearly,  with  one 
cold  wall  and  two  windows,  and  though  it  has  double  the  cubic  con- 
tents, it  will  require  no  larger  radiator  than  the  corner  room. 

Hood  says  that  experiment  has  proven  that  each  square  foot  of 
glass  cools  1.28  cubic  feet  of  air  from  the  temperature  of  the  room  to 
the  outside  temperature  in  one  minute.  According  to  this,  if  we  have 
25  square  feet  in  a  window,  with  70  degrees  in  the  room  and  zero  out- 
side, we  cool  1,920  cubic  feet  of  air  70°  in  an  hour,  to  maintain  which 
we  must  condense  very  nearly  three  pounds  of  steam. 

Experiments  on  radiators,  such  as  are  made  in  this  country, 
give  an  average  of  three-tenths  of  a  pound  of  steam  condensed  per 
hour  to  each  square  foot  of  surface,  which  would  call  for  10  square 
feet  of  radiator  to  the  25  square  feet  of  window,  making  .40  of  a  square 
foot  of  radiator  to  each  square  foot  of  window-glass.  This  last  rule 


VALUE  OF  HEATING  SURFACES.  51 

gives  a  radiator-surface,  as  figured  against  glass,  of  twenty  per  cent, 
less  than  by  Baldwin's  method,  and  is  probably  too  low  for  the  ranges 
of  temperature  in  this  country. 


AMOUNT    OF    HEATING-SURFACE    REQUIRED    IN    HOT- 
WATER    APPARATUS    BOILERS    AND    IN 
STEAM-APPARATUS   BOILERS. 

Q.  PLEASE  state  what  amount  of  heating  or  fire  surface  is 
required  in  a  hot-water  boiler,  as  compared  with  the  heating  or  fire 
surface  in  a  low-pressure  steam-boiler — the  conditions  of  fire  being  the 
same. 

That  is,  if  in  a  low-pressure  steam-boiler  having  a  30-inch  fire-pot, 
experiment  shows  that  225  feet  of  heating-surface  is  ample,  what 
should  be  the  heating-surface  of  a  hot-water  boiler — the,  fire-pot 
being  the  same  ? 

A.  It  depends  entirely  on  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation  in  the 
hot-water  apparatus. 

In  steam-boilers  of  good  construction,  a  square  foot  of  surface  in 
one  boiler  has  very  nearly  the  same  value  as  an  equal  amount  of  sur- 
face in  any  other  steam-boiler,  for  the  reason  that  the  water  is  at  liberty 
to  circulate  as  rapidly  as  the  force  of  ebullition  can  make  it ;  but 
with  a  hot- water  apparatus  a  square  foot  of  boiler-surface  has  a  value 
of  depending  entirely  on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  water  circulates  in 
the  pipes. 

It  is  the  water,  as  it  passes  over  the  surface  of  the  boiler,  which 
takes  away  the  heat.  When  it  passes  rapidly  it  takes  more,  and  less 
goes  up  the  chimney.  When  the  circulation  is  sluggish  the  heat  is 
wasted  up  the  chimney,  no  matter  what  the  surface  is. 


CALCULATING  THE  AMOUNT   OF   RADIATING-SURFACE 
FOR  A  GIVEN  ROOM. 

MONTREAL. 

Q.  How  many  feet  of  i-inch  steam-pipe  radiating-surface  of 
the  Nason  form  of  radiator  will  it  take  to  give  a  temperature  of  140° 
Fah.;  in  a  room  which  is  26  feet  6  inches  long,  15  feet  4  inches  wide, 


52  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

and  14  feet  high,  one  side  and  one  end  exposed  to  the  outer  air,  the 
other  side  and  end  abutting  on  well-warmed  rooms,  walls  of  8-inch 
brick,  lathed  and  plastered  on  the  inside,  three  windows,  each  7  feet  4 
inches  wide,  fitted  with  double  sashes  ?  In  the  room  is  a  plunge- 
bath  i6'x8'x5'  sunk  below  the  floor.  This  will  usually  be  full  of  cold 
water  ;  sides  of  tank  and  floor  are  tiled.  Steam  pressure  on  boiler  10 
pounds,  fitted  to  work  as  a  gravity  apparatus. 

A.  If  you  use  long,  flat  radiators  (single  or  double  rows),  and 
place  them  on  the  outside  walls,  200  Nason  radiator-tubes  are  about 
what  will  be  required.  There  might  be  conditions  which  would  raise 
the  amount  of  surface  to  250  square  feet,  but,  again,  with  great  precau- 
tion, such  as  drawing  down  window-shades  and  closing  of  the  inside 
blinds,  a  test  might  be  conducted  which  would  give  the  required  tem- 
perature with  only  170  square  feet.  This  does  not  take  into  consider- 
ation the  effect  caused  by  the  plunge-bath,  and  we  think  nothing  but 
experiment  will  determine  the  extra  surface  required.  It  may  be  that 
the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  bath  will  require  much  extra 
heat,  or,  if  there  is  no  ventilation,  the  air  may  become  heavily 
charged  with  moisture,  when  a  very  small  addition  of  surface  will 
prove  sufficient. 


HOW  MUCH   HEATING-SURFACE  WILL  A  STEAM-PIPE 
OF  GIVEN  SIZE  SUPPLY? 

Q.  WILL  you  inform  us  as  to  the  amount  of  heating-surface  which 
a  ^4-inch  pipe  will  heat,  with  high-pressure  steam  ?  The  pipe 
is  to  be  carried  about  500  feet  in  the  ground,  and  is  to  be  run 
through  a  wooden  log  or  pipe.  It  drips  from  mill  where  we  are  to  get 
our  steam  to  the  house.  I  suppose  it  will  require  a  trap  inside  of  the 
house  where  steam  enters.  What  is  the  cheapest  and  best  size  to  use  ? 
We  intend  to  exhaust  steam  out  through  the  house,  and  there  are  in 
the  house  385  feet  of  heating-surface.  What  size  and  kind  of  trap  is 
it  best  to  use  on  the  exhaust-pipe  ?  Can  we  make  a  trap  in  the  pipe 
itself  and  not  use  a  steam-trap  ? 

A.  The  loss  of  steam  in  small  long  pipes  by  friction  and  condensa- 
tion is  so  uncertain,  depending  on  local  circumstances  and  conditions, 


VALUE  OF  HEATING  SURFACES.  53 

that  it  would  be  hazardous  to  say  for  just  how  much  surface  a  certain 
size  and  length  of  pipe  will  supply  steam. 

A  ^4-inch  pipe  of  the  length  you  mention  at  40  or  50  pounds 
pressure  will  supply  steam  for  385  square  feet  of  surface  with  a 
very  much  reduced  pressure  at  the  heaters. 

To  insure  success  we  should  use  i^-inch  pipe  for  the  work  you 
mention.  Use  a  steam-trap  of  intermittent  action  inside  the  walls  of 
the  house,  to  receive  the  condensation  from  the  pipe  before  going  to 
the  heaters.  If  large  piping  is  used  within  the  house,  so  as  to  get  a 
uniform  pressure  in  the  heaters,  this  same  trap  may  receive  the 
remainder  of  the  water  of  condensation,  but  if  very  small  piping  is 
used  another  trap  will  be  necessary. 


COILS  OR  RADIATORS  ?      ESTIMATING  SIZE  OF  BOILER. 

Q.  I  HAVE  a  few  questions  to  ask  you.  I  want  to  heat  a  build- 
ing, 50x100  feet.  Would  it  heat  as  well  by  running  the  pipe  in 
coils  on  the  wall  as  by  radiators  in  the  rooms  ?  Also,  what  size  of  boiler 
would  be  required  and  the  best  for  that  purpose  ?  What  size  pipe 
should  I  start  with  and  what  size  of  return-pipe  ?  Please  tell  me  where 
I  can  get  a  good  book  on  steam  fitting  and  heating. 

A.  THe  same  amount  of  pipe  in  long  coils  around  the  outside  walls 
and  under  the  windows  will  give  a  better  result  than  radiators  will. 
Use  about  one-fifth  the  surface  in  the  boiler  that  you  have  in  the  coils, 
assuming  that  your  coils  are  sufficient.  Horizontal  tubular  boilers  give 
a  high  efficiency  when  well  set  and  will  last  a  long  time.  There  are 
also  many  fine  water-tube  and  sectional  boilers  now  before  the  public. 

Baldwin's  work  on  steam-heating  is  the  best  we  know  of. 


CALCULATING  AMOUNT  OF   HEATING-SURFACE. 

Q.  I  HAVE  "  Baldwin's  Steam-Heating  for  Buildings,"  published 
by  J.  Wiley  &  Son,  but  the  rule  on  pages  23  and  24  I  do  not  quite 
understand.  If  not  too  much  trouble,  will  you  please  make  it  a  little 
more  explicit  ?  For  example,  publish  the  amount  of  heating  surface 


54  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING   PROBLEMS. 

and  method  of  calculating  on  the  following  room, 
ceiling  ;  lath  and  plastered  on  brick  wall,  with  i%  furring  between 
wall  and  laths.  Three  south  windows,  3^2x8  feet,  or  28  square  feet 
to  each  window.  Same  sized  room  with  plaster  on  brick  wall. 

A.  You  do  not  say  how  many  outside  walls  there  are  to  the  room 
you  mention  ;  but  as  there  are  three  windows,  we  assume  the  longest  side 
(19  feet)  to  be  the  outside  wall.  The  inner  walls,  ceilings,  and  floors 
you  may  omit  on  the  assumption  the  other  rooms  of  the  building  are 
warmed.  Thus  we  have  19x12  —  228,  less  the  window's  area  (84 
square  feet)  =  144  square  feet  of  outsidje  wall,  which,  multiplied  by  75 
and  divided  by  1,000  =  iiy%,  or  the  equivalent  of  the  wall-surface  in 
square  feet  of  glass  for  the  lathed  and  plastered  room,  and  in  the 
same  manner  144  x  I25  •*- 1,000  =  18  for  the  unlathed. 

Thus  we  have  in  the  first  case  84  _j_  i  iT8T  =  95-^5-  x  -5  =  47-9  square 
feet  of  radiating-surface  for  the  first  room,  and  84  +  18  =  102  -5-^=51 
square  feet  for  the  second  room  ;  to  both  of  which  should  be  added  a 
generous  allowance  of  surface  to  warm  the  air  admitted  for  ventilation 
or  leakage,  if  any. 


COMPUTING  COST  OF  STEAM  FOR  WARMING. 

Q.  CAN  you  give  me  the  necessary  information  to  calculate  the 
amount  of  coal  consumed  in  heating  a  room  any  given  size  by  low- 
pressure  steam  ?  We  heat  our  building  on  the  low-pressure  principle, 
and  desire  to  rent  heat  to  several  of  our  tenants.  What  I  desire  to 
know  is,  how  to  calculate  the  quantity  of  coal  it  will  require  to  heat, 
say,  one  square  foot  of  radiator-surface  every  twenty-four  hours,  under 
ordinary  conditions.  By  this  rule  I  can  decide  how  to  charge  for  the 
different  sized  rooms,  according  to  the  amount  of  radiator-surface 
exposed. 

A.  A  steam-radiator  will  condense  from  one-fifth  to  two-fifths  of  a 
pound  of  steam  to  water  per  square  foot  of  surface  per  hour,  varying 
with  the  nature  of  the  surface,  the  kind  and  position  of  the  pipes,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  steam,  in  buildings  where  direct  radiation  only  is 
used,  and  with  the  temperature  of  the  air  maintained  at  about  70°  Fah. 
All  other  things  being  the  same,  a  radiator  will  condense  less  steam  at 


VALUE  OF  HEATING  SURFACES.  55 

low  pressures  than  it  will  at  higher  pressures,  the  increase  of  water  of 
condensation  being  (about)  directly  as  the  temperature  of  the  steam  is 
in  excess  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  of  the  room.  In  other  words, 
when  the  condensation  with  one  pound  pressure  of  steam  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  216°  Fah.  is  represented  by  216°  —  70°  =  146,  the  condensation 
at  50  pounds  pressure  will  be  represented  by  298° —  70°=  228. 

In  the  case  of  low-pressure  steam,  one-third  of  a  pound  of  water 
per  square  foot  of  radiator  is  not  too  great  an  estimate  for  the  man 
who  has  to  sell  the  steam,  especially  when  we  consider  that  the  conden- 
sation which  takes  place  within  the  mains  must  be  charged  pro  rata 
to  each  square  foot  of  radiator-surface  within  the  rooms. 

According  to  this  estimate,  a  radiator  of  100  square  feet  of  surface 
will  condense  33  pounds  of  water,  or  about  one-half  a  cubic  foot,  in 
an  hour. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  consider  at  what  cost  you  can  evaporate 
water.  A  pound  of  coal  will  evaporate  from  six  to  twelve  pounds  of 
water,  according  to  the  way  it  is  burned.  Six  pounds  is  poor  practice ; 
twelve  presumably  the  very  best  possible.  With  these  data  before 
you,  find  the  efficiency  of  your  boiler,  then  take  into  consideration  the 
cost  of  plant  and  interest  on  it,  wear  and  tear,  labor,  etc.,  and  you  will 
be  able  to  estimate  within  reasonable  limits  the  cost  of  warming.  To 
this,  of  course,  add  profit  enough  to  cover  contingencies. 

The  New  York  Steam  Company  charges  sixty  cents  per  1,000  kals 
for  the  steam  it  sells,  the  kal  being  the  equivalent  of  1,000  heat  units. 
This,  in  approximate  numbers,  may  be  taken  as  equal  to  the  making  of 
1,000  pounds  weight  of  steam  from  the  temperature  of  water  as  it 
returns  to  the  boiler  from  the  heating  apparatus,  and  on  the  assumption 
that  one-third  of  a  pound  of  water  is  formed  per  hour  for  each  square 
foot  of  surface,  the  cost  for  a  "  zoo-pipe  "  radiator  will  be  two  cents 
per  hour. 


RADIATORS   AND    HEATERS. 


A  WOMAN'S  METHOD  OF  REGULATING  A  RADIATOR. 

INCLOSED  I  send  you  a  sketch  of  a  method  invented  or  accident- 
ally discovered  by  a  woman  for  regulating  and  controlling  the  heat 
given  off  by  a  steam-radiator,  which  I  think  will  be  of  interest  to  the 
readers  of  the  Sanitary  Engineer. 

No  doubt  you  are  aware  that  with  a  gravity  apparatus,  and,  in  fact, 
with  almost  all  steam-heating  apparatus,  you  must  have  all  the  steam 

turned  on  the  radiator  or 
it  will  fill  with  water  and 
"  pound  "  ;  that  there  can 
be  no  half-way  about  it, 
and  that,  consequently,  in 
moderate  winter  weather 
a  radiator-surface  that  is 
proportioned  for  very  cold 
weather  will  be  more  than 
sufficient,  and  make  the 
apartment  too  warm. 

When  the  lady  in  ques- 
tion was  told  there  was  no 
way  of  modifying  the  heat 
but  by  shutting  off  all  the 
steam,  she  suggested  that 
the  heater  could  "  be  cov- 


FlGURE    15. 


ered  with  something  to  keep  the  heat  in,"  and  forthwith  made  what  Fig- 
ure 15  shows.  She  now  draws  the  cover  up  and  down  to  suit  herself, 
making  the  radiator  more  or  less  effective  as  she  uncovers  or  covers 
the  pipe. 

In  summer-time  she  covers  the  radiator  all  up  with  her  contrivance, 
which  in  color  corresponds  with  the  hangings  of  the  room. 


RADIATORS    AND    HEATERS.  57 

[We  can  see  how  by  covering  the  pipes  in  this  manner  the  air  can- 
not come  in  contact  with  them  as  freely  as  when  they  are  exposed,  and 
that  consequently  as  much  water  cannot  be  condensed  or  heat  given  off 
in  a  given  time  ;  but  we  would  suggest  to  any  one  who  would  like  to 
repeat  the  experiment  that  it  would  be  well  to  use  none  but  woolen 
goods — not  that  we  are  sure  that  cotton  goods  will  take  fire  under  such 
conditions,  but  to  be  on  the  safest  side. — ED.] 


IMPROPER    POSITION    OF    RADIATOR- VALVES. 

Q.  INCLOSED  I  send  you  a  sketch  of  a  steam-radiator.  At  a  glance 
a  steam-fitter  who  knows  his  business  will  see  that  it  is  not  properly 
connected,  or  at  least  that  the  valves  are  improperly  attached  to  it. 

I  wish  to  call  attention  to  an  experience  I  had  lately  with  a  radiator 
similarly  connected,  evidently  by  a  mistake  or  a  blunder,  as  all  the 
other  radiators  in  the  house  (over  fifty)  were  differently  connected.  In 
this  building,  which  was  an  old  one  which  was  being  fitted  with  steam- 
pipes,  all  the  risers  were  exposed  with  the  tees  above  the  floors,  so  as  to 
make  direct  and  short  connections.  Globe- valves  were  used  by  the  fitter 
in  many  places,  though  it  was  intended  that  all  or  nearly  all  should  be 
angle  radiator-valves.  With  this  particular  radiator  it  was  found,  after 
steam  was  up,  that  it  remained  full  of  hot  water,  or,  if  not  full,  with  a 
great  quantity  of  water  in  it,  so  much  so  that  it  always  ran  water  from 
the  air-valve  when  it  was  opened.  Why  this  radiator  should  act  so  and 
none  of  the  others  give  any  trouble  was  not  apparent,  and  the  pipes 
were  opened  to  look  for  a  stoppage,  when  it  was  discovered  that  the 
valves  were  "  wrong  side  to,"  as  the  steam-fitter  calls  it,  and  there  was 
no  stoppage.  The  valves  were  reversed,  and  afterward,  though  the 
stems  of  the  valves  were  left  in  a  vertical  position,  the  radiator  worked 
without  rumbling  of  water. 

The  above  are  the  facts.  Perhaps  you  or  some  of  your  readers 
will  explain  why  the  changing  of  the  valves  should  make  such  a  differ- 
ence, for,  if  I  am  informed  rightly,  steam-fitters  turn  the  valves  the  other 
way — not  to  make  the  radiator  work  properly,  but  to  make  it  convenient 
to  pack  both  valves  without  shutting  steam  off  from  the  whole  house, 
by  simply  closing  both  and  waiting  for  the  steam  within  the  radiator 
to  condense. 

A.  We  represent  in  our  drawing  (Figure  16)  water  in  the  base  of  the 
radiator.  As  there  is  practically  as  much  pressure  in  the  return  end  of  a 


STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


FIGURE  16. 


radiator,  in  an  ordinary  system,  as  there  is  in  the  steam  end,  the  two 
globe-valves  will  4<  trap  "  the  base  of  the  heater  full  of  water,  as  repre- 
sented. When  condensation  takes  place,  as  it  must  within  the  pipes 
of  the  radiator,  the  greater  pressures  in  the  pipes  will  force  inward 
at  the  two  ends  and  nearly  alike.  This  will  prevent  the  water 

which    is   accumulated 

_T\  f  .^  ^      ^  ^  f  ^  ^  in  the  base  above  the 

valve  line  from  flowing 
out  easily,  as  it  should, 
and  will  make  it  assume 
a  level  still  higher  than 
we  show.  This  will 
make  the  water  rise 
against  the  bottom  of 
the  tubes  and  allow  it 
to  pass  up  in  the  tube 
'on  which  is  the  air- 
valve,  when  the  latter 
is  opened,  relieving  the  pressure  in  the  heater  still  more.  The  natural 
result  is  the  partial  filling  of  the  radiator  with  water,  the  accu- 
mulating column  of  which  preponderates  against  the  entering  steam  at 
the  lowest  or  return  end  intermittently,  thus  finding  its  way  out  of  the 
heater  sufficiently  not  to  let  the  heater  become  cold,  but  accompanied 
by  the  noise  mentioned. 

If  the  valves  are  turned  the  conditions  are  somewhat  better,  as 
then  the  steam  has  a  clear  passage,  though  if  the  globe-valves  must  be 
used  it  is  better  to  place  them  with  the  stems  sidewise,  but  not  quite 
down  to  the  level.  This  gives  a  clear  and  level  waterway  on  a 
vertical  section. 

HOT-WATER    RADIATOR. 

ST.  JOHNS,  N.  B. 

Q.  Do  YOU  know  of  a  hot-water  radiator  for  use  in  private 
dwellings,  in  place  of  box-coils  for  house-heating  by  hot  water  ?  If  so, 
kindly  inform  us. 


RADIATORS    AND    HEATERS. 


59 


Hot-water  heating  is  largely  used  in  our  city,  and  has  proved 
highly  satisfactory  and  very  economical  of  fuel.  We  construct  a  low- 
pressure  hot-water  heating  apparatus,  open  to  the  atmosphere,  for 
private  dwellings,  and  must  say  we  prefer  it  to  steam  for  that  purpose, 
although  we  put  in  low-pressure  steam  gravity  apparatus,  working  at 
one  pound  pressure,  also.  But  the  universal  opinion  here  is  in  favor  of 
hot  water  for  private  residences,  and  steam  for  large  buildings,  schools, 
public  halls,  etc. 

A.  Any  heater  that  can  take  its  supply  at  the  top  so  that  the  flow 
of  the  water  will  be  downward  from  the  highest  point  will  do. 

There  are  cast-iron  radiators  extended  with  vertical  fins  made  up 
of  two,  three,  or  four  sections  placed  one  above  the  other  and  connected 
at  one  end  only.  That  is,  the  upper  section  connects  on  the  right, 
say  with  the  second  section,  and  the  second  on  the  left  with  the  third, 
and  so  on,  giving  these  heaters  the  positive  principle  of  a  return-bend 
coil  for  hot-water  work. 


REMEDYING  THE  AIR-BINDING  OF  BOX-COILS. 

Q.  I  REPLACED  a  cluster  of  old-pattern  Gold's  radiators  with  a 
box-coil,  connected  as  in  Figure  17.  I  cannot  get  all  the  pipes  to  heat, 
the  centre  ones  being  air-bound.  What  is  the  best  plan  to  remedy  the 


FIGURE  17. 

trouble  ?  The  steam  and  return-water  all  has  to  work  to  and  from 
the  boiler  by  the  2-inch  main.  The  middle  loops  of  each  section  of  the 
box-coil  do  not  heat.  There  is  an  air-cock  in  the  lower  header.  The 


60  STEAM-HEATING   AND   STEAM-FITTING   PROBLEMS. 

pipes  which  enter  the  upper  header  and  its  valves  are  one  and  a  quar- 
ter inches  in  diameter,  and  the  pipe  from  the  lower  header  to  the  tee  is 
one  inch.  Below  the  reducing-coupling  the  pipe  is  two  inches. 

A,  Box-coils  connected  at  top  and  bottom  with  a  single  pipe,  as  this 
one  is,  will  always  be  air-bound,  unless  air-cocks  are  set  all  over  it,  or 
unless  it  leaks  badly  in  the  joints,  the  leaks  acting  as  air-vents. 
Another  difficulty  about  it  is,  that  it  can  never  be  shut  off  entirely  ;  in 
fact,  we  think  the  coil  will  work  better  if  the  valve  shown  is  always  kept 
closed  and  an  air-vent  put  in  the  upper  header  To  get  satisfactory 
results  cut  out  the  nipple  between  the  lower  header  and  the  tee,  and  put 
on  a  separate  return-pipe  with  its  valve. 


HOW  TO  USE  A  STOVE  AS  A  HOT-WATER  HEATER. 

Q.  WE  wish  to  heat  a  long  room  by  hot  water  if  possible,  heat- 
ing   the  water  by  a  large  egg-stove.     The  idea  is  to  run  the  hot 


water  by  pipes  from  the  stove  at  one  end  of  the  room  to  the  other 
end  and  return  the  pipes  to  the  stove.  The  pipe  will  run  on 
side  walls  of  room.  Will  you  be  kind  enough  to  say  what  pipe  will 
be  best,  how  to  run  it,  and  how  to  fit  it  up  ? 

A.  Use  ij^-inch  pipe  or  larger.  Carry  it  from  the  coil,  or  water-back 
in  stove,  upward  and  as  high  as  possible  to  an  expansion-chamber,  thence 
run  downward  and  distribute  around  the  room,  about  as  shown  in 
Figure  18.  If  possible,  avoid  carrying  the  end  of  the  return-pipe 
where  it  goes  to  the  stove  upward  for  any  considerable  distance.  If 


RADIATORS    AND    HEATERS.  6 1 


the  pipe  which  first  rises  to  the  expansion-tank  is  covered  so  as  to  pre- 
vent much  loss  of  heat  it  will  help  the  circulation.  The  principle  of 
the  car-heater  is  what  you  require. 


"PLANE"  OR  "PLAIN." 

Q.  WILL  you  settle  the  usage  of  the  term  plain  or  plane  surface 
as  applied  to  the  outside  surface  of  radiators  ? 

In  nearly  all  catalogues  and  other  trade  books  it  is  spelled  plain, 
but  when  used  by  writers  it  is  generally  plane.  Why  this  difference  ? 

A.  The  difference  evidently  comes  from  the  view  taken  of  what 
"  plain  "  or  "  plane  "  surface  is. 

The  trade  was  long  accustomed  to  a  certain  kind  of  heaters  or 
coils  made  of  pipes  or  castings,  which  were  smooth,  or  nearly  so,  on 
the  outside  ;  but  then  innovation  came  in  and  surfaces  were  put  on  the 
market  which  had  projections  on  the  outside,  but  too  small  to 
be  "cored  out"  in  the  projection,  and  they  were  called  "extended  sur- 
faces." The  manufacturers  of  old  styles  of  heating-surface  then  found 
it  necessary  to  call  their  surface  plain,  to  indicate  that  it  was 
ordinary  or  common. 

But  soon  again  surfaces  were  made  and  put  on  the  market  which 
were  not  ordinary  or  common,  but  were  corrugated  or  extended  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  inside  or  coring  of  the  castings  followed  the  contour 
of  the  outside  of  the  radiators,  and  which  could  not  be  said  to  be 
"  extended  surface  "  in  the  first  acceptation  of  the  word.  Nor  were  they 
the  old  kind,  which  had  been  called  plain  for  the  sake  of  distinction  ; 
but,  nevertheless,  they  had  the  distinction  which  the  advocates  of  the  old 
school  claimed  as  a  point  in  favor  of  the  pipe  method — namely,  that 
the  inside  or  steam  surface  was  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  as  the 
outside  surface,  but  as  this  latter  was  not  plain  it  was  called  plane,  to 
distinguish  it  from  hilly  or  uneven  surface. 

Thus,  pipe  m^y  be  called  plain  or  plane  surface,  while  irregular 
shaped  surface  may  be  either  plane  or  extended,  according  as  the 
coring  is  done  ;  but  if  the  core  does  not  follow  the  shape  of  the  outside 
it  is  extended ;  therefore,  all  that  is  not  extended  may  be  called  plane. 


62  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  PIPE    AND    CAST-IRON    HEATING- 
SURFACE. 

Q.  PLEASE  state  your  opinion  as  to  the  relative  value  of  pipe  and 
cast-iron  sections  of  the  various  manufacturers,  for  use  as  indirect 
surface  in  heating  by  steam. 

In  one  instance  which  we  know  of  there  is  an  objection  to  the  pipe- 
coils  on  account  of  their  liability  to  become  air-bound.  The  coils  are 
about  ten  pipes  wide  by  eight  to  ten  deep,  and  three  feet  to  five  and 
one-half  feet  long,  with  headers  at  top  and  bottom  for  steam  and  return 
pipes.  The  coils  have  automatic  air-valves,  two  to  each  coil.  Large  feed- 
pipes are  the  rule,  and  all  well  designed  and  put  up. 

A.  There  are  no  reliable  data  on  the  relative  efficiency  of  com- 
mercial heating-surfaces.  A  box-coil  should  not  become  air-bound 
when  it  is  supplied  at  the  upper  header  with  properly  arranged  air-valves. 

If  the  only  fault  with  the  apparatus  is  air-binding,  the  difficulty  is 
to  be  looked  for  in  defective  construction. 


RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  PIPE  AND  STEAM  COILS. 

Q.  WILL  you  give  an  opinion  as  to  the  proper  working  of  the 
coils  shown  in  Figure  19  ?  The  following  points  will  give  you  an 
idea  of  the  construction  of  the  apparatus  as  it  has  been  put  into  a  new 
building.  The  building  has  not  as  yet  been  plastered,  and  objections 
to  the  coils  having  been  made,  if  they  are  to  be  changed  it  should  be 
done  now,  while  the  building  is  in  a  rough  state.  Gold's  indirect  cast- 
iron  surface  was  called  for,  but  the  steam-fitter,  not  finding  the  size  of 
the  brick  chambers  such  as  to  fit  the  cast-iron  surface  well,  made  box- 
coils  of  inch  pipe  to  take  their  place.  If  Gold's  had  been  put  in  they 
would  have  had  to  be  three  to  four  sections  deep,  which  would  have 
brought  the  coil  too  near  the  water-line  of  the  boiler. 

The  bottom  of  the  pipe-coils  is  three  feet  one  inch  above  the 
water-line.  The  coils  are  from  three  to  six  feet  long,  as  in  the  sketch, 
from  six  to  ten  pipes  deep,  and  from  six  to  ten  pipes  wide  (on  the 
headers).  For  instance,  take  the  largest  coil,  ten  pipes  wide,  ten  pipes 
high,  and  six  feet  long,  or  about  600  feet  of  pipe,  or  200  feet  of  radia- 


RADIATORS    AND    HEATERS. 


FIGURE  19. 


ting-surface.  Each  coil  has  two  air- valves  connected  at  the  end  of  the 
lower  header  next  to  where  the  return-pipe  leaves  it  (see  sketch).  Do 
you  consider  these  properly  put  up,  so  that  there  should  be  no  trouble 
from  air-binding  in  the  middle  of  the  coil,  which  loses  the 
effect  from  part  of 
the  surface  and  ren- 
ders the  condensed 
steam  liable  to  freeze  ? 

What  is  the  rel- 
ative cost  of  the  Gold 
surface  compared 
with  these  coils  of 
pipe  as  made  ? 

A  steam -pres- 
sure from  two  to  ten 
pounds  will  be  used, 
according  to  the 
season.  There  is 
plenty  of  pitch  in  the 
direction  the  steam 
travels  to  all  of  the  pipes  and  coils,  and  the  steam-supply  mains  are 
large.  The  air-valves  are  Davis's  automatic  valves. 

Ought  the  coils  to  work  free  at  one  time  and  give  trouble  at 
another,  or  ought  they  work  every  day  equally  well  ? 

A.  It  is  difficult  to  reply  to  your  letter  directly.  You  do  not  say 
what  the  trouble  is  you  found  to  exist,  if  any  ;  you  evidently  only  antici- 
pate trouble.  But  to  review  the  matter  as  far  as  we  can  from  your  letter, 
we  will  say,  in  the  first  place,  that  four  sections  of  "  pin-radiators,"  one 
above  the  other,  can  be  placed  in  a  height  of  about  thirty-two  inches. 
According  to  this,  then,  we  cannot  see  why  "pin-radiators  "  would  not 
be  further  above  the  water-line  than  box-coils  ten  pipes  deep,  which 
must  have  about  three  and  a  half  inches  to  centres,  allowing  for  spread, 
which  will  make  the  height  thirty-six  inches. 

As  to  which  heater  will  work  closer  to  the  water-line — the 
pin  sections  or  the  ^i-inch  pipe  box-coils — all  other  things  being 
equal,  the  pin  sections  will  give  the  best  result,  as  the  steam  meets  less 
resistance  in  them  in  passing  from  inlet  to  outlet  ;  whereas  the  box-coil 
gives  about  the  greatest  resistance  of  any  form  of  heater  made,  the 


64  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

steam  having  to  travel  through  all  its  turns  and  long  pipes  of  compar- 
atively small  diameter.  Then,  when  a  box-coil  is  used,  it  is  better  to 
have  the  steam  and  return  at  opposite  ends  of  opposing  headers,  with 
the  air-valves  attached  to  either  end  of  the  lower  header  ;  but  should 
the  resistance  and  condensation  in  the  coil  reduce  the  pressure  enough 
to  allow  the  water  in  the  returns  to  stand  as  high  as  the  lower  pipes  of 
the  coils,  the  air-valves  will  be  abortive,  no  matter  of  whose  make,  and 
in  such  a  case  would  be  better  attached  to  the  upper  header.  Two 
air-valves,  also,  on  one  pipe  are  not  likely  to  improve  the  working  of 
the  coil ;  one  will  accomplish  all  the  two  can  if  it  is  properly  adjusted, 
but  should  the  air-valves  be  separated,  and  one  on  each  header  or  at 
opposite  ends  of  the  same  lower  header,  some  advantage  may  result. 

There  should  be  no  pounding  in  the  middle  of  the  coils,  and  if  it 
is  found  to  exist  it  will  not  be  caused  by  air-binding,  but  by  the  holding 
of  water  of  condensation  for  the  want  of  sufficient  pressure  above  it  to 
make  it  flow  down  regularly.  It  goes  down  spasmodically  when 
the  pressure  of  its  own  static  head  overcomes  the  resistance  from 
below.  Then  it  falls  into  hot  steam  in  the  lower  header,  condensa- 
tion follows  for  a  moment,  a  partial  vacuum  takes  place,  and  the  water- 
hammer  or  pounding  is  the  result. 

The  liability  to  freeze  is  greater  with  common  box-coils  than  with 
any  kind  of  large-chambered  heaters.  The  Gold  surface  is  much 
cheaper  than  the  plain  box-coils,  the  cost  being  in  the  proportion  of 
about  four  to  five,  and  for  this  reason,  if  the  full  surface  called  for 
was  used,  economy  or  a  disposition  to  save  on  the  part  of  the  con- 
tractor did  not  prompt  the  use  of  box-coils.  With  regard  to  pres- 
sures, box-coils  work  better  at  high  than  at  low  pressures. 

Pitch  alone  to  pipes  will  not  make  the  water  "  go  back."  If  a  pipe 
runs  nearly  horizontal,  with  a  pitch  of  half  an  inch  in  ten  feet, 
and  is  then  dropped  suddenly  one  foot,  it  will  work  equally  as  well, 
for  sizes  such  as  are  practicable  in  steam-fitting,  as  if  it  had  the  whole 
foot  and  more  of  pitch  distributed  through  its  entire  length. 

Coils  should  work  every  day  equally  well,  but  a  box-coil  that  may 
work  nicely  at  ten  pounds  by  keeping  the  water  down  may  refuse  to 
work  well  at  two  pounds,  and  may  let  it  up,  simply  because  the  amount 


RADIATORS   AND    HEATERS.  65 

of  steam  that  can  pass  the  supply-pipes  and  turns  and  pipes  of  the  coils 
at  the  low  pressure  is  all  used  to  supply  condensation,  whereas  with 
the  higher  pressures  the  greater  velocity  and  increased  density  of  steam 
for  the  same  diameter  flow-pipes  will  supply  loss  by  condensation  and 
friction,  and  have  some  energy  left  to  "  hold  the  water  down "  ;  in 
other  words,  the  pressure  from  the  boiler  through  the  return-pipes  will 
be  nearly  balanced  by  the  steam-pressure  through  the  coils,  and  the 
water  in  the  pipes  will  rise  comparatively  little  above  its  level  at  the 
water-line  of  the  boiler. 


WARMING  CHURCHES. 

Q.  IN  the  matter  of  supplying  direct  radiation  to  churches,  I 
would  inquire  what  you  think  of  placing  a  coil  in  each  pew  ?  Of 
course  I  do  not  lose  sight  of  the  necessity  of  the  ventilating-shaft, 


FIGURE  20. 


or  some  other  method  of  moving  air,  with  a  good  proportion  of  in- 
direct radiation  for  warming  the  supply  of  fresh  air,  but  it  does  seem  to 
me  that  a  coil  might  be  placed  near  the  floor,  and  directly  in  the  rear  of 
each  seat,  so  as  to  be  at  the  feet  of  the  people  in  the  next  seat  behind, 


66  STEAM^HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

or  under  the  seats,  provided  they  are  so  constructed  that  the  heat  will 
not  pass  up  in  front  of  the  seat  under  which  the  coil  is,  but  to  the  pew 
behind  the  coil.  Fearing  I  cannot  make  myself  well  enough  under- 
stood, I  send  you  the  inclosed  sketch  (Figure  20). 

These  little  coils,  a,  will  connect  with  the  steam  and  return  main 
below  the  floor  in  nearly  the  usual  way  of  large  coils,  without  valves ; 
but  to  avoid  long  return  connections,  I  think  the  main  return-pipe  can 
be  as  well  carried  along  side  of  the  steam-main,  as  shown,  than  on  the 
floor,  as  the  basement  is  generally  fitted  for  a  class-room  or  chapel. 

What  do  you  think  of  the  plan  generally,  and  will  not  the  warming 
of  the  room  from  below  rather  than  from  above  be  advantageous  in  this 
case,  as  it  will  allow  each  person  to  have  a  "  foot  warmer,"  so  to  say  ; 
and  cannot  a  church  be  made  more  comfortable,  even  with  a  lower  tem- 
perature, than  by  most  other  methods  ? 

A  shows  one  way,  with  a  hanging  partition,  so  the  heat  cannot  pass 
front.  B  shows  it  with  the  coil  in  the  pew,  and  for  those  who  kneel, 
the  stool  can  be  made  to  cover  it,  if  required. 

A.  We  believe  the  First  Baptist  Church  of  Detroit  is  done  some- 
what in  this  way  ;  at  least,  every  pew  has  its  coil.  The  plan  is  not  new, 
though  uncommon,  and  suggests  several  interesting  questions,  on  which 
we  would  like  the  views  of  our  readers. 

The  problem  of  church-warming  is  very  unsettled.  Churches  can 
be  made  warm  even  to  be  disagreeable  at  parts,  and  be  uncomfortably 
cold  at  the  same  time  in  other  positions,  and  this  happens  with  nearly 
all  of  our  present  methods,  as  no  one  rule  can  be  made  to  suit  all  local 
conditions  and  styles  of  architecture.  If  pews  run  to  the  floor,  the 
counter  current  which  must  always  set  in,  sweeping  to  an  outlet  or  a 
radiator  with  indirect  radiation  in  the  one  case  and  direct  radiators  set 
at  isolated  positions  along  the  walls  in  the  other,  will  be  interrupted, 
and  will  have  to  pass  through  the  aisles,  or  on  a  line  near  the  top  of  the 
pews — which  should  be  the  neutral  line.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
pews  do  not  run  to  the  floor  the  return  current  is  at  the  floor,  and  over 
one's  feet.  A  person  sitting  in  a  pew  which  runs  to  the  floor  and  is  fur- 
nished with  a  door,  with  no  heating  source  within  it,  with  the  pew  in 
front  of  a  window,  will  always  be  cold  (in  cold  weather).  The  cold  air 
will  fall  from  the  glass  and  settle  in  the  pew,  and  will  have  to  overflow 
to  get  out,  leaving  the  pew  always  full  of  the  air  of  the  temperature  at 


RADIATORS    AND    HEATERS. 


67 


which  it  falls  into  the  pew,  and  not  of  the  temperature  of  the  body  of 
the  church,  the  occupant  being  immersed  to  the  middle  in  air  much 
colder  than  the  rest  of  the  house.  The  same  thing  is  experienced> 
though  in  a  less  degree,  with  the  pews  which  abut  on  the  piers  between 
the  windows. 


WARMING  CHURCHES. 

Q.  THE  plan  of  church- warming  described  in  the  letter  pre- 
ceding is  not  new  nor  uncommon  in  this  vicinity.  One  church  here 
has  used  that  system  for  twenty-three  years.  I  have  also  seen  it  used 


in  connection  with  small  holes  in  the  floor  under  the  pipes  connected 
with  fresh  air  from  the  outside.     A  better  plan,  I  think,  is  to  run  a 


68 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


single  pipe  on  the  floor  to  front  end  of  church,  either  in  the  basement 
or  on  one  side  of  the  partition  between  seats  (see  sketch),  thence  back 
on  the  other  side,  with  branches  of  i-inch  pipe  for  each  seat,  made  like 


a  Nason  tube.  This  partly  overcomes  the  objection  of  having  too 
much  heat  in  the  pews.  I  have  another  plan  for  warming  and  venti- 
lating churches  (where  the  basement  is  not  used  for  class-rooms,  etc.), 


FlGURB   23. 


that  is  superior  to  anything  I  have  seen, 
will  send  you  a  description  and  sketch. 


When  I  can  spare  the  time  i 


RADIATORS    AND    HEATERS. 


69 


A.  We  think  there  is  a  little  danger  of  having  noise  with  this  plan, 
unless  the  heating-pipe  both  ways  from  the  tee  pitched  slightly  upward. 


This  is  a  matter  of  detail,  of  course,  and  all  that  is  required  is  sufficient 
pitch  toward  the  main  pipe  to  secure  the  drain  of  the  water  that  way, 
even  should  there  be  some  slight  change  in  the  level  of  the  floor — not 
an  unusual  thing  with  settling  buildings. 


PIPING    AND    FITTING. 


STEAM-HEATING  WORK,  GOOD  AND  INDIFFERENT. 

Q.  I  THINK  it  is  evident  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  steam-fitting 
done  that  does  not  represent  the  best  practice,  yet  gives  fair  results. 

Figure  25  is  a  sketch  of  part  of  a  hotel  job.  You  will  observe  that 
the  steam-main  is  carried  up  from  the  boiler ;  also,  that  the  radiator- 


FlGURK   25. 


connections  are  branched  off  straight  from  a  T  in  the  risers,  making  an 
almost  rigid  connection  ;  also,  that  the  returns  do  not  come  below  the 
water-line,  but  are  what  are  technically  called  "  dry." 


PIPING    AND    FITTING.  71 

The  steam-main  is  only  2-inch,  yet  there  is  at  least  1,200  feet  of 
heating-surface  supplied  by  it. 

The  pressure  carried  is  about  five  pounds  ;  the  circulation  is  good 
— a  little  noisy  at  times,  but  that  is  the  only  fault. 

Now,  here  is  a  piece  of  work  with  steam-mains  too  smn.ll,  with 
radiator-connections  that  are  contrary  to  all  rules,  with  no  reliefs,  with 
no  automatic  air-vents,  and  with  dry  returns — in  fact,  contrary  to 
everything  that  I  have  been  taught  to  regard  good  work — and  yet  I 
can  vouch  for  the  fact  that  it  heats  the  building  comfortably,  and  that 
neither  the  man  who  did  the  work  nor  the  man  who  had  it  done  is 
aware  that  it  is  not  a  first-class  job  in  every  respect. 

A.  A  very  large  share  of  all  the  steam-work  through  the  country 
at  large  is  done  in  a  manner  "  just  good  enough  to  work." 

Steam-fitting  is  like  many  other  trades  :  its  good  points  are  only 
brought  out  by  comparison.  A  man  may  appear  comfortably  and 
almost  richly  dressed  in  a  suit  of  broadcloth,  made  by  a  tailor  who 
never  had  learned  to  cut,  but  nevertheless  was  a  good  sewer,  and  who 
had  the  hardihood  to  undertake  any  job  that  came  along  ;  the  cloth 
and  trimmings  being  as  good  as  other  people's,  cost  the  same,  and  if 
there  was  any  saving  it  was  on  labor  alone.  Contrast  him  now 
with  a  man  dressed  by  a  man  who  is  a  tailor,  and  the  comparison  will 
be  obvious  and  odious. 

A  similar  difference  exists  between  the  work  you  show  and  the 
work  done  by  a  steam-fitter  who  is  entitled  to  the  name.  At  the  same 
time  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  heating-apparatus  were  invented  to 
keep  us  warm,  as  were  clothes,  and  that  unless  both  are  positively  dan- 
gerous to  the  owner  he  should  not  be  frightened  about  their  appearance 
— unless  he  is  wealthy. 


PIPING  ADJACENT  BUILDINGS— PUMPS  OR  STEAM- 

.  TRAPS. 

Q.  I  COME  to  you  once  more  with  one  of  my  sketches  (Figure  26), 
which  I  hope  you  will  be  able  to  understand.  I  happened  to  see  this 
job  a  few  days  ago,  and  remarked  it  could  never  be  made  to  work. 
Last  winter  there  was  an  Albany  steam-trap  over  the  boiler  in  the 


72  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

house  No.  i,  and  it  did  all  that  was  claimed  for  it,  but  the  parties  who 
own  the  house  said  that  it  required  too  much  steam  to  run  the  trap, 
and  the  rooms  in  house  No.  i  were  made  too  hot  in  moderate  weather  ; 
so  they  consulted  a  "  jack-of-all-trades,"  who  has  advised  the  present 
plan.  The  bath-boiler  (R),  forty  gallons,  is  intended  to  receive  all  the 
condense-water  from  houses  Nos.  3,  4,  and  5.  Not  less  than  3,000  feet 
of  pipe  (i-inch)  is  used  in  the  job.  A  Knowles  pump  is  intended  to 
pump  the  water  back  into  the  boiler. 


There  is  no  way  to  cool  the  water  in  the  bath-boiler,  and  no  way 
to  get  rid  of  the  steam.  Now,  I  wish  to  know  if  there  is  any  pump 
that  will  pump  with  boiling  water  or  steam.  When  the  party  started 
the  pump  it  would  not  work,  and  he  said  it  was  because  the  pump  was 
too  small,  and  ordered  a  larger  one.  You  will  notice  that  houses 
Nos.  i  and  2  are  on  the  return-system  or  low-pressure,  while  the  other 
three  will  be  on  the  high-pressure  system,  and  I  think  very  high- 
pressure,  as  the  pump  is  thirty  feet  lower  and  150  feet  away  from  the 
main  steam-boiler.  There  is  no  safety-valve  on  the  bath-boiler.  Is 


PIPING    AND    FITTING.  73 

there  not  danger  of  this  boiler  blowing  up  ?  It  is  a  cold  place,  and 
steam  is  not  kept  on  it  at  night  in  the  winter.  There  are  all  the 
necessary  valves  on  the  pipes,  though  they  are  not  shown.  The 
Knowles  pump  is  No.  oo,  with  %-inch  suction  and  ^6-inch  steam 
and  ^-inch  discharge,  increased  at  two  feet  from  pump  to  i^-inch. 

A.  If  you  mean  when  you  say  the  Albany  trap  "  did  all  that  was 
claimed  for  it,"  that  the  apparatus  heated  and  circulated  properly, 
regardless  of  making  the  rooms  too  warm  at  times,  we  are  'of  opin- 
ion that  a  great  mistake  was  made  when  it  was  removed. 

The  graduation  of  the  temperature  of  steam-radiators  to  suit 
changes  of  the  weather  is  something  that  has  been  indifferently  accom- 
plished by  the  best  engineers  in  the  trade  heretofore,  and  is  not  to 
be  expected  with  such  an  apparatus  as  you  describe.  When  an 
apparatus  will  work  properly  with  any  pressure,  let  it  be  one  or 
forty  pounds,  then  a  good  way  is  to  carry  low  pressures  in  moder- 
ate weather,  and  higher  pressures  as  it  grows  colder. 

Speaking  of  the  steam  required  to  run  the  "Albany"  or 
"Pratt"  trap,  or  any  gravity-trap,  we  think  it  is  a  mistake  to 
use  a  pump  instead  which  exhausts  to  atmosphere.  Assuming  the 
surface  of  the  ball  of  such  a  trap  to  have  seven  square  feet  of  condens- 
ing, it  will  condense  less  than  three  pounds  of  steam  per  hour,  which  is 
about  one-tenth  of  a  horse-power,  and  to  do  this  it  must  be  capable  of 
putting  about  720  pounds  of  water  back  into  the  boiler,  regardless 
of  pressure,  whereas  a  pump  to  do  the  same  requires  the  steam  of  nearly 
one  horse-power,  unless  the  exhaust-steam  is  turned  into  the  heating- 
apparatus,  which,  of  course,  can  only  be  done  to  advantage  with  low 
pressure  in  the  pipes,  when  pump  and  trap  are  brought  to  about  the 
same  level,  in  point  of  duty. 

A  4o-gallon  bath-boiler  appears  small  for  the  purpose  of  a  receiver 
for  a  pump,  but  should  the  pump  be  kept  in  constant  action  it  will  do, 
though  if  we  designed  a  receiver  for  such  a  place  we  should  proportion 
it  to  hold  the  condensed  water  that  could  be  formed  in  an  hour,  to  allow 
that  much  time  for  stoppage  or  an  examination  of  the  pump,  etc.  A 
galvanized-iron  bath-boiler  (if  it  is  such  that  is  used)  will  not  burst  with 
sixty  pounds  pressure,  though,  again,  we  must  say  we  should  not  select 


74  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

it  for  a  receiver.  If  the  pump  is  sufficiently  low  to  allow  the  hot  water 
to  flow  into  it  by  gravity  from  the  bath-boiler  (receiver),  it  should  pump 
hot  water.  A  pump  is  capable  of  forcing  hot  water,  but  will  not  "  suck  " 
it  when  it  is  near  the  atmospheric  boiling  point.  The  reason,  presuma- 
bly, the  pump  does  not  work  well  is,  there  is  too  great  a  loss  of  pres- 
sure in  150  feet  of  ^-inch  pipe  from  the  boiler.  We  would  suggest  a 
one-inch  pipe  for  the  pump. 

We 'are  opposed  to  giving  an  expression  of  opinion  on  the  general 
methods  of  work — if  they  are  not  dangerous  to  life  and  limb — all  the 
circumstances  of  which  we  cannot  be  acquainted  with. 


TRUE  DIAMETERS  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  STANDARD  PIPE. 

Q.  i.  WILL  you  be  kind  enough  to  give  the  true  inside  and  outside 
diameter  of  i^-inch  steam-pipes,  with  the  standard  weight  per  lineal 
foot? 

2.  Will  you  also  kindly  inform  me  if  it  is  possible  for  pipe  to  have 
the   true   diameter   and  thickness  and  not  come  to  the  standard  in 
weight  ? 

3.  Which  is  usually  the  thickest,  butt  or  lap  welded  pipe  ? 

4.  Will  you  also  inform  me  if  there  is  a  pipe  now  in  the  market 
which  is  under  the  standard  and  which  the  unwary  may  buy  and  use  as 
standard  to  the  injury  of  his  customers  ? 

A.  i.  The  outside  diameter  of  i-inch  standard  steam  or  gas  pipe 
should  be  1.315  inches;  its  interior  diameter  is  nominally  i-inch, 
but  in  reality  a  little  greater,  and  its  weight  should  be  fully  1.67  of  a 
pound  per  lineal  foot.  For  i^-inch  pipe,  the  outside  diameter  should 
be  1.66  inches,  its  inside  diameter  nominally  i%  inches,  but  in  reality 
a  little  greater,  and  its  weight  2.258  pounds  per  lineal  foot. 

2.  With  butt-welded  pipe — drawn — that  is,  not  subjected  to  pres- 
sure in  the  manufacture,  this  might  be  possible  to  a  very  small  extent, 
but  lap-welded  pipes — rolled — we  think,  should  be  fully  up  to  the 
standard  in  weight  if  the  thickness  is  maintained. 

4.  When  the  same  thickness  of  "skelp  "  is  used  in  both  cases,  we 
believe  the  lap-welded  pipe  is  slightly  thinner  than  wrought-iron. 


PIPING    AND    FITTING.  75 

There  is  i-inch  pipe  now  in  the  market  which  weighs  less  than  T.% 
pounds  to  the  running  foot,  and  when  buyers  do  not  know  the  makers 
from  whom  they  buy,  or  when  they  buy  through  agents  or  jobbers, 
they  should  test  and  weigh  their  pipe  so  as  to  protect  their  customers 
and  themselves. 


EXPANSION   OF   PIPES  OF  VARIOUS  METALS. 
Q,  PLEASE  let  me  know  at  what  point  water-pipes  expand. 

A.  Water-pipes  contract  or  expand  for  every  change  in  their  tem- 
perature, let  them  be  lead,  iron,  or  brass. 

Lead  expands  .0000158  of  its  length  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit  it 
is  warmed,  and  contracts  the  same  amount  for  each  degree  it  is  cooled  ; 
wrought-iron  from  .0000066  to  .0000074,  according  as  it  is  soft  or  hard, 
and  brass  about  .0000 1  for  all  qualities. 

Example — Assume  100  feet  of  lead  pipe  warmed  100  degrees  :  we 
have  .0000158  X  too  degrees  =  .00158  X  100  feet,  =  .158  of  one  foot,  or 
1--  inches. 


EXPANSION   OF   STEAM-PIPES. 

Q.  WILL  you  explain  why  it  is  that  steam-pipes  in  buildings — 
rising  lines — do  not  expand  as  much  in  practice  as  is  given  in  text-books 
for  the  expansion  of  wrought-iron  ?  For  instance,  I  have  an  exhaust- 
pipe  a  little  over  100  feet  in  height.  The  temperature  of  the  building 
where  it  was  put  in  was  about  60°  Fah.,  and  now  that  an  engine  is 
exhausting  through  it,  it  has  only  elongated  seven-eighths  of  an  inch, 
instead  of  one  and  one-fifth  inches,  as  I  expected. 

A.  You  have  assumed  that  the  pipe  has  been  warmed  from  60°  Fah., 
or  thereabouts,  to  212°,  and  have  calculated  the  expansion  for  a  differ- 
ence of  temperature  of  150°.  This  pipe  being  exposed  to  the  temper- 
ature of  the  atmosphere  on  one  side  and  the  temperature  of  the  steam 
on  the  other,  will  really  have  a  temperature  between  the  two.  It  is 
difficult  to  assume  even  how  much  the  temperature  of  the  iron  of  the  pipe 


70  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

will  be  below  the  steam,  or  how  much  it  will  be  greater  than  the  air, 
though  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  nearly  as  great  as  the  steam.  It  will 
vary  also  for  different  degrees  of  temperatures,  and  no  reliable  data 
that  we  know  of  are  in  existence  on  the  subject. 

When  pipes  are  carefully  covered  with  good  non-conductors  they 
are  found  to  expand  a  little  more  than  when  uncovered. 

The  difference  of  expansion  you  wish  to  account  for  is  but  .32  of 
an  inch,  and  this  compared  to  1.2  does  not  surprise  us  ;  though  with- 
out what  you  say  we  should  suppose  it  to  be  less. 


ADVANTAGES  CLAIMED  FOR  OVERHEAD  PIPING. 

Q.  WE  who  do  steam-fitting  in  New  York  City  are  seldom  called 
upon  to  do  work  in  cotton  factories,  but  we  know  that  in  the  Eastern 
States  a  practice  has  come  into  vogue  of  piping  factories  overhead — 

that  is,  the  pipes  are 
placed  near  the  ceilings 
and  near  the  outer  walls 
— and  it  is  actually 
claimed  for  the  system 
that  less  pipe  will  make 
a  building  warm  in  this 
manner  than  if  it  were 
placed  against  the  walls 
low  down,  How  can 
this  be  so? 


A.  We  believe  two 
methods  of  piping  build- 
ings overhead  have  been 
been  tried.  One  of 

them  is  to  place  the  pipes  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position,  side  by 
side,  and  a  foot  or  two  from  the  outside  walls,  and  to  run  around  the 
whole  building,  a  section  of  which  method  is  shown  in  Figure  27. 
The  other,  which  is  not  so  much  used,  is  to  put  the  pipes  over  the 
windows,  but  in  other  respects  it  is  similar  to  the  ordinary  methods 
of  placing  coils  under  windows,  and  is  shown  in  Figure  28. 


PIPING    AND    FITTING.  77 

In  the  case  where  the  pipes  are  side  by  side  (Figure  27),  there  is 
every  reason  to  suppose  more  water  will  be  condensed  per  foot  of  pipe 
than  when  the  pipes  are  over  each  other  (a  full  explanation  of 
this  is  given  in  "Thermus"  article,  No.  20,  page  458,  Volume  VII.  of 
the  Sanitary  Engineer],  and  consequently  more  air  is  warmed  in  a 
given  time,  or  a  given  quantity  of  air  is  made  warmer  in  less  time. 
With  this  method  less  pipe  should  do,  but  the  amount  saved,  we 
should  think,  could  only  be  determined  by  actual  experiment.  In  the 
method  shown  in  Figure  28  we  think  no  pipe  can  be  saved  over  the 
method  of  placing  coils  near  the  floor. 

The  whole  system  of  warming  overhead  by  direct  radiation  is  more 
one  of  convenience  and  necessity  than  choice  of  position,  but  it  has  been 
found  to  have  fewer  objections  than  was  first  supposed  to  attend  such 
a  system. 


POSITION   OF   VALVES  ON  STEAM-RISER  CONNECTIONS. 

Q.  INCLOSED  you  will  find  a  sketch  (Figure  29)  of  the  lower  end 
of  a  steam-rising  line.  Why  I  trouble  you  with  it  is  to  point  out  an 
error  that  steam-fitters  frequently  fall  into,  and  which  is  not  always 
discovered  until  some  damage  is  done  by  water,  not  to  consider  the 
noise  that  is  produced  if  one  attempts  to  shut  off  the  line. 

The  error  is  this  :  The  steam-fitter,  in  running  his  line,  provides 
a  tee  between  the  steam-riser  valve  V  and  the  flange-union  for  a  radia- 
tor on  the  next  floor,  but  when  he  comes  to  run  his  small  pipes  a  and  b 
he  considers  it  is  best  to  have  the  return-pipe  b  connected  with  the 
return-riser  below  the  water-line,  consequently  he  introduces  a  tee  into 
the  return,  as  shown,  below  the  water-line  and  below  the  valve  V. 
What  is  the  result  ?  If  you  close  the  valves  V,  V,  and  V"  ( as  you 
must,  if  you  want  to  shut  off  a  rising  line),  unless  the  radiator  is  also 
accidentally  shut  off  water  from  the  return-riser  r'  below  the  valve  V 
will  pass  up  in  the  pipe  b  through  the  radiator-base  down  the  pipe  a 
and  into  the  steam-riser  r.  The  result  is  the  filling  of  the  line  with 
water,  followed  with  a  pounding  noise.  But  this  is  not  all ;  should  one 
attempt  to  make  repairs  the  water  will  flow  out  upstairs — apparently 
without  reason,  as  the  operator  is  positive  he  closed  the  riser-valves. 
Of  course,  when  an  engineer  of  a  building  finds  it  out,  generally  to  his 
cost,  he  will  ever  after  close  the  radiator-valves  also,  but  I  think  you 


78  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

will  agree  with  me  in  saying  that  this  is  not  the  proper  way  to  shut  off 
a  riser,  and  that  fitters  should  be  more  careful  and  put  the  tee  at  c;  or  if 
they  want  to  have  the  first  radiator  take  steam  from  the  riser,  they 
should  put  the  return-valve  V  at  d. 

A.  We  think  the  above  letter  fully  covers  the  case  ;  though  if  a  tee 
were  put  into  the  return-riser  in  the  nipple  between  the  valve  V  and 


FIGURE  29. 

the  elbow,  and  b  were  connected  with  it,  then  the  radiator  would  work 
equally  as  well  as  when  the  return  is  carried  below  the  water-line  for 
jobs  of  this  class,  as  the  condition  is  then  only  the  same  as  exists  on 
the  next  story  above  with  a  single  return-riser,  rf,  as  shown  in  this  case. 


CAUSE  OF  NOISE  IN  STEAM-PIPES. 

Q.  (i)  WHAT  is  the  cause  of  the  rattling  and  hammering  noise  in 
radiators  and  pipes  for  steam-heating  on  letting  on  the  steam  after  it 
has  been  shut  off  over  night  or  for  several  hours  ? 

(2)  Is  it  because  distilled  water  has  got  trapped  at  some  point  ? 

(3)  If  so,  would  the  admission  of  air  at  the  lowest  point  of  the 
system  remedy  it  ? 


PIPING    AND    FITTING.  79 

(4)  It  rights  itself  in  about  half  an  hour  after  steam  has  been 
turned  on. 

A.  (i)  The  rattling  and  hammering  noise  (commonly  known  as 
the  water-hammer]  is  caused  by  steam  within  the  pipes  coming  in  con- 
tact with  water  much  colder  than  itself,  producing  condensation  at  the 
point  of  contact,  and  a  vacuum  more  or  less  perfect,  into  which  both 
the  steam  and  water  rush — the  steam  flowing  with  its  accustomed  high 
velocity,  and  the  water,  we  will  say,  jumping  as  soon  as  inertia  is  over- 
come. The  blow  thus  given  when  they  meet  is  the  cause  of  the  noise, 
and  exerts  great  strain  and  pressure  on  pipes  of  large  diameters  with 
much  water  and  high  pressures. 

When  steam  can  flow  over  water — as  sometimes  water  is  trapped  in 
the  base  of  a  radiator — below  the  line  of  the  inlet  and  outlet,  a  rattling 
only  is  experienced,  with  a  rhythmic  sound,  caused  by  an  imperfect 
contact  of  the  steam  and  the  water  by  having  a  stratum  of  air 
between  them  ;  but  when  the  heater  is  full  of  water  above  the  inlet, 
"  banging "  and  "  thumping  "  is  caused  by  the  water  being  forced 
asunder  by  the  steam,  but  instantly  returning  with  a  shock  to  its 
original  solidity  on  the  condensation  of  the  entering  wedge  of  steam. 
This  goes  on  until  the  water  is  sufficiently  warmed  to  let  enough  steam 
pass  through  it  to  make  a  pressure  sufficient  within  the  radiator  to 
press  the  water  out  at  the  return  end. 

(2)  The  distilled  water,  or  water  brought  over  mechanically,  which 
cannot  run  away  by  gravity,  will  cause  it. 

(3)  The  admission  of  air  will  do  no  good  in  a  poorly-constructed 
heating-apparatus. 

(4)  When  the  water  is  as  hot  as  the  steam,  or  very  nearly  so. 


ONE-PIPE  SYSTEM  OF  STEAM-HEATING. 

Q.  DOES  the  one-pipe  system  of  steam-heating  have  the  preference 
in  the  East  for  blocks  and  large  buildings?  Here,  where  the  thermom- 
eter reaches  at  times  twenty-five  degrees  below  zero,  is  this  system 
better  for  circulation  than  the  two  pipes  ?  The  architects  of  this  city 
specify  the  one-pipe  system  altogether. 


8o  STEAM- HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

A.  The  one-pipe  system  is  entirely  out  of  fashion,  not  only  in  the 
East  but  with  nearly  every  one  who  has  had  a  trial  of  it.  The  only 
advantage  that  can  justly  be  claimed  for  it  is  cheapness  of  first  cost, 
both  in  labor  and  materials.  In  small  buildings  (single  houses)  it  may 
be  used  and  give  very  little  trouble,  if  well  put  in  and  used  with  very 
low  pressures  ;  but  with  high  or  medium  pressures,  or  in  large  buildings, 
it  will  be  an  abominable  nuisance.  With  all  long  runs  of  steam- 
pipes  for  heating  purposes  a  circuit  should  be  formed,  and  every 
radiator  or  coil  in  a  building  should  "  short-circuit"  the  larger  one ;  the 
large  or  long  circuit,  or  riser,  being  in  turn  a  tributary  circuit  to  the 
main  circuit,  or  "  mains."  This  keeps  every  circuit  and  subdivision  of 
a  circuit  alive,  and  the  interruption  of  any  part  of  the  system,  such  as 
the  closing  of  radiators  or  rising  lines,  will  have  no  effect  on  the 
remaining  part  of  the  circulation,  and  the  opening  and  the  filling  of 
them  again  will  be  rapid,  as  the  circulation  they  are  a  part  of  is  active. 

With  single  pipes  there  can  be  no  circuit,  except  what  goes  on  in 
the  pipe  itself.  If  the  pipe  is  large  and  short  this  may  do  ;  but  the 
limit  is  very  soon  reached,  and  air,  water,  etc.,  is  impounded  in  the  ex- 
tremities. When  the  single  valve  on  such  a  radiator  is  negligently 
closed  or  is  defective,  steam  is  admitted  in  small  quantities  and  is  con- 
densed within  the  heater,  partly  or  altogether  filling  it.  If  steam  is 
wanted  the  valve  is  opened  ;  but  as  the  water  is  already  in  possession, 
and  there  is  no  way  for  it  to  run  out  but  through  the  pipe  at  which 
steam  tries  to  enter,  there  is  naturally  a  conflict.  Loud  and  continued 
noise  is  the  result,  and  this  noise  will  go  on  until  the  water  in  the 
radiator  becomes  nearly  as  hot  as  the  steam,  or  until  it  can  condense 
no  more  steam  by  contact.  Then  it  will  quietly  run  out  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pipe  while  the  steam  is  entering  at  the  top,  if  the  pipe  is  large 
enough  for  the  two  currents.  Otherwise  the  noise  is  likely  to  continue 
at  intervals,  and  what  was  intended  for  a  steam-radiator  will  be  a 
hot-water  heater.  Drawing  a  basinful  of  hot  water  from  the  air-cock 
and  throwing  it  out  of  the  window  on  a  cold  morning  (the  conventional 
method)  relieves  this  condition  of  things  for  a  short  time. 

Of  course  there  are  cases  where  these  little  air-cocks  or  valves  are 
connected  with  a  little  pipe  and  run  to  the  sewer  or  some  other  conven- 


PIPING    AND    FITTING.  8l 

ient  place  where  they  "  will  not  make  a  mess  "  and  will  be  out  of  sight, 
and  the  occupant  of  the  room  is  no  more  troubled  with  the  fear  that  he 
or  she  may  scald  some  one's  child,  as  when  they  emptied  their  basin  in 
the  regular  manner  (the  servant  having  refused  to  carry  so  much  water 
down-stairs),  and  the  inventor  of  the  little  pipe  is  blessed  where  he  was 
before  anathematized,  and  all  goes  apparently  well.  But,  from  a  practical 
point  of  view,  what  has  this  man  done  ?  He  has  altered  a  single-pipe 
system  into  a  two-pipe  system,  and  a  very  bad  one  at  that,  as  he  is 
losing  a  large  part  of  his  condensed  water  into  the  sewer,  or,  if  it  does 
not  go  to  the  sewer,  he  is  sapping  the  foundations  of  the  house  with  it. 
The  result  is,  that  if  he  has  not  a  good  water-feeder,  there  is  a  burned 
boiler  in  a  short  time,  and  no  one  knows  where  the  water  went  to,  and 
if  the  steam-fitter  has  an  idea  he  is  likely  to  keep  it  to  himself. 
It  is  also  difficult  to  get  air  from  a  one-pipe  system. 


HOW  TO  HEAT  SEVERAL  ADJACENT  BUILDINGS  WITH  A 
SINGLE  APPARATUS. 

Q.  I  HAVE  made  a  study  of  the  systems  of  steam-heating  for  the 
past  year,  and  have  been  rewarded  with  the  most  gratifying  results,  but 
just  now  I  have  a  problem  which  seems  difficult  to  solve.  It  is  as 
follows : 

A  gentleman  desires  to  have  a  factory  and  private  residence  heated 
by  direct  vertical  radiators  from  one  source — viz.,  the  factory.  The 
factory  is  elevated  about  four  feet  above  residence,  as  you  will  see  by 
Figure  30,  and  they  are  ninety-four  feet  apart.  The  factory  cellar  is 
eight  feet  deep,  and  if  a  line  were  drawn  from  the  top  of  the  residence 
cellar  it  would  come  within  four  feet  of  the  bottom  of  the  factory  cellar. 
What  I  wish  to  know  is,  whether  the  residence  can  be  successfully 
heated  by  a  gravity  system  of  steam-pipes,  provided  I  could  place  the 
water-line  of  boiler  one  to  two  feet  below  steam-main.  Would  this  be 
practical  ?  I  suppose  I  could  overcome  the  difficulty  by  the  use  of  an 
automatic  return-trap.  Any  information  you  can  give  me  will  be  most 
gratefully  received. 

P.  S. — Would  a  gravity  system  in  the  factory  and  an  automatic 
return  for  the  residence  work  successfully  together  ? 


82 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


A.  One  or  even  two  feet  between  the  level  of  the  mains  of  a  gravity 
steam-apparatus  seldom  gives  satisfaction.  Not  that  it  is  impossible  to 
have  the  apparatus  work  if  you  use  very  large  main  pipes,  but  there  will- 
be  times  when  comparatively  sudden 
changes  of  pressure  will  raise  the 
water-columns  in  the  return-pipes,  and 
then  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  shut 
off  or  let  on  steam  without  considerable 
noise  and  with  the  chance  of  breaking 
fittings  or  pipes  by  the  water-hammer 
when  the  water-line  is  so  close. 

We  know  of  one  building — a  large 
apartment-house — in  New  York  work- 
ing on  2o-inch  difference  of  level 
between  the  second  gauge-cock  and  the 
mains.  The  apparatus  works  well 
when  untouched,  and  steam  is  raised 
and  lowered  with  all  valves  opened,  but 
should  steam  be  gotten  up  on  the 
boilers  with  the  main  valves  closed,  or 
should  the  valve  be  closed  for  some 
purpose  for  a  short  time,  it  is  not  then 
safe  to  let  steam  on  the  building  again 
unless  all  the  water  is  run  from  the 
return-pipes  into  the  sewer.  Again, 
should  a  riser  be  shut  off  and  let  on 
again  with  an  apparatus  that  is  run  so 
close,  the  sudden  draught  of  steam  into 
the  empty  riser  and  heaters  will  cause  a 
momentary  loss  of  pressure  in  the  mains 
sufficient  to  let  the  water-columns  up. 

In  this  case,  all  things  considered, 
we  would  advise  the  use  of  a  gravity  system  in  the  factory,  as  shown 
to  the  right  in  the  diagram,  and  a  direct  return-trap  system  in  the 
residence. 


FIGURE  30. 


PIPING    AND    FITTING.  83 

The  pipes  S  are  the  steam  supply-pipes  or  mains,  and  S1  indicates 
the  return-pipes,  while  S2  is  the  relief  from  the  end  of  the  main  under- 
ground back  to  the  receiver  of  the  trap.  This  pipe  when  it  enters  the 
receiver  should  be  provided  with  a  check- valve,  as  well  as  the  pipe  S1, 
to  prevent  "  short-circuiting  "  or  back-pressures  from  the  receiver  to 
the  mains,  before  the  pressure  from  the  boiler  filled  them  equally  when 
letting  on  steam. 

The  residence  may  be  piped  with  the  return-pipe  overhead,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram,  but  the  sizes  of  pipe  used  should  be  very  nearly 
as  great  as  would  be  used  in  a  gravity  apparatus  of  the  same  size. 


PATENTS    ON    THE   MILLS    SYSTEM. 

Q.  PLEASE  be  kind  enough  to  let  me  know  if  there  is  a  patent  on 
what  is  called  the  "  Mills  system  of  steam-heating  " — /.  e.,  running  the 
steam-main  to  the  top  of  the  building  and  running  the  distributing- 
mains  downward  ? 

A.  There  is  a  patent  or  patents  on  the  "  Mills  system  of  steam- 
heating,"  but  the  Mills  system  patents,  as  we  understand  them,  do  not 
cover  the  right  to  use  steam  fed  through  a  down  system  when  in  con- 
nection with  a  separate  return  riser-pipe.  The  Mills  system  is 
the  use  of  a  "  down-steam  "  riser,  with  a  short  connection  with  one 
valve  to  one  end  of  each  radiator,  the  return-water  flowing  through  the 
same  connection  into  the  riser  again,  and  falling  through  it  into  a  hori- 
zontal return-pipe  near  the  floor  of  basement  or  cellar. 


AIR-BINDING  IN  RETURN  STEAM-PIPES. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  writes : 

"  SIR  :  It  is  generally  known  to  the  steam-heating  trade  through- 
out the  country  that  air-binding  is  likely  to  take  place  in  return-pipes 
of  steam-heating  apparatus  and  be  the  cause  of  continual  annoyance  by 
the  holding  of  the  return  water  in  vertical  rising  lines  or  radiator-con- 
nections much  more  above  the  water-line  than  is  due  to  the  difference 
of  pressure  between  the  boiler  and  the  ends  of  the  distributing  pipes  of 


84  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

the  steam-supply  system.  I  have  run  return-pipes  along  basement-floors 
in  gravity  apparatus  sometimes,  with  a  pitch  in  the  direction  of  the 
boilers  when  I  can  conveniently  do  so.  Often  I  am  forced  to  run  level, 
and  now  and  then  I  am  forced  to  rise  up  and  go  down  again  to  get 
over  something  that  is  in  the  way.  This  last,  I  believe,  many  steam- 
fitters  do  as  well  as  myself,  claiming  that  it  can  have  no  perceptible 
effect  on  the  working  of  the  apparatus.  In  one  case,  at  least,  I  have 
discovered  it  to  be  a  serious  matter. 

"  The  apparatus  in  question  I  had  fitted  up  with  a  sufficient  grade 
to  the  return-pipe,  until  I  had  passed  half  the  length  of  the  basement, 
when  I  was  forced  to  rise  above  a  drain-pipe  or  go  under  it.  I  chose 
the  former  method,  giving  the  matter  very  little  consideration  at  the 
time.  When  the  apparatus  was  completed,  and  steam  up,  I  was  sur- 
prised to  find  that  the  water  stood  much  higher  in  certain  return-pipes 
than  I  had  calculated  on,  and  that  at  times  water  was  running  from  the 
air-valves  on  certain  rising  lines — the  valves  being  placed  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  lines  near  the  ceiling  of  the  basement.  These  rising  lines 
and  radiator-connections  which  acted  in  this  manner  were  the  ones  fur- 
thest from  the  boiler,  and  at  once  it  occurred  to  me  that  I  had  by  some 
means  used  mains  of  two  small  a  diameter  ;  hence  the  supposed  loss  of 
pressure.  But  on  mature  deliberation  I  assumed  my  mains  were  large 
enough,  and  I  began  to  look  for  my  trouble  elsewhere.  After  proving 
there  was  no  mechanical  stoppage  in  the  pipe,  I  filled  up  and  tried  my 
apparatus  again,  and  found  it  went  well  for  a  time,  but  again  filled  up 
some  distance  in  the  same  risers. 

"  The  question  then  came  to  my  mind  whether  '  air-binding,'  such 
as  you  sometimes  have  in  waste  and  water  pipes,  could  have  anything 
to  do  with  it,  as  I  had  noticed  that  the  rising  lines  between  the  boiler 
and  the  rise  in  the  return  worked  well,  though  the  others  did  not.  To 
test  the  matter  I  punched  a  small  hole  in  the  return-pipe,  when  com- 
pressed air  immediately  rushed  out  and  the  water  came  to  its  proper 
level  in  the  other  rising  lines. 

"  This  experience  may  be  of  service  to  some  of  your  readers  who 
are  troubled  with  imperfect  circulations  in  their  heating  apparatus,  and 
I  offer  the  suggestion  for  their  benefit." 


PIPING    AND    FITTING. 


AIR-BINDING    IN    RETURN    STEAM-PIPES. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  writes  : 

"  SIR  :  Referring  to  the  preceding  letter  on  this  subject,  it  is 
usually  advisable  to  run  the  return -pipe  under  such  an  obstruc- 
tion as  your  correspondent  mentions,  by  constructing  an  inverted 
syphon  in  the  return-pipe,  as  in  Figure  31.  If  the  return-pipe 
cannot  be  passed  under  the  obstruction,  it  must  be  passed  over  it, 


JJ 


. 


FIGURE  31. 

A — Obstruction.     B — Return-Pipe.      C— Inverted  Syphon 
when  necessary. 


D — Plug  or  Cock  for  drawing  syphon 


as  in  Figure  32.  Your  correspondent  omitted  to  put  in  an  equalizing- 
pipe  connecting  the  top  of  his  syphon  with  the  nearest  available  steam- 
supply  pipe  ;  consequently  when  the  water  was  run  into  the  apparatus, 
the  lower  parts  of  the  return-pipe  filled,  and  forced  the  air  into  the  top 
of  the  syphon,  where,  as  it  had  no  outlet,  the  "  air-binding  "  was  the 


FIGURE  32. 
A — Obstruction.     B — Return-Pipe.    C — Syphon.     D    Equalizing-Pipe.     E    Steam-Supply  Pipe. 

result.  If  your  correspondent  will  put  in  an  equalizing-pipe,  as  in 
Figure  32,  he  will  find  the  air-binding  permanently  cured.  When  pipes 
are  filled  with  water,  the  air  will  always  lodge  at  the  highest  point  if  no 
outlet  is  provided  for  it." 


VENTILATION. 


SIZES  OF  REGISTERS  TO  HEAT  CERTAIN  ROOMS. 

Q.  WOULD  you  be  kind  enough  to  give  me  the  sizes  required  for 
the  following  registers  ?  I  am  putting  in  registers  too  large  in  a  house, 
where  they  will  look  clumsy.  This  house  is  in  Salem.  It  has  an 
orchard  on  the  north,  with  a  large  brick  stable  to  keep  off  cold  winds. 
For  chamber  marked  D.  R.  Chamber  he  has  1^x2^"  between  the 
opening.  I  say  it  is  unnecessary.  Also,  how  many  square  feet  of 
radiation  would  your  sizes  require,  and  how  often  would  this  change 
the  air  in  the  room  ?  The  walls  of  the  house  are  hollow. 

Size  of  register  which  is  required  to  heat  the  following  rooms  by 
indirect  radiation,  boiler  3'xn',  thirty  3-inch  tubes,  on  north  end  of 
house : 


Cubic  Con- 

Square 

tents  of 

Feet  of 

Room. 

Glass. 

N. 

Dining-Room. 

5,661 

150 

Over  Boiler. 

E. 

Back  Parlor. 

4,736 

- 

Next  to  D  R 
opens  into  it. 

S.  E. 

Front  Parlor. 

4,390 

69 

S.  W. 

Library. 

3,172 

75 

W. 

Den. 

2,181 

48 

Second  Floor. 

N.  E. 

D.  R.  Chamber. 

2,747 

112 

N.  W. 

Kitchen  Ch. 

3.124 

H5 

W. 

Den  Ch. 

1,896 

23 

S.  W. 

Lib.  Ch. 

2,520 

64 

S.  E. 

F.  Parlor  Ch. 

3,59i 

60 

S.  E. 

Dressing  Room. 

1,071 

23 

All  of  these  rooms  have  open  fire-places  except  the  dressing- 
room. 

A.  Under  conditions  such  as  you  are  likely  to  have  in  the  rooms  on 
the  first  floor  of  a  house,  with  indirect  radiation  and  natural  currents, 
with  a  fire-place  chimney,  the  velocity  of  the  air  through  the  flues  will 


VENTILATION.  87 

be  between  i^  and  3  feet  per  second.  If  you  now  consider  a  flue  of 
one  square  foot  of  cross-section  you  will  have  3,600  cubic  feet  of  air 
that  will  pass  into  the  room  in  an  hour,  assuming  your  velocity  to  be 
only  one  foot  per  second  ;  but  assuming  it  to  be  1%  feet,  the  minimum, 
you  will  have  5,400  cubic  feet  passing,  the  equivalent,  very  nearly,  of 
moving  the  air  once  in  an  hour  in  the  dining-room.  If  four  healthy 
persons  occupied  this  room  continuously,  this  would  give  them  fair 
ventilation,  and  should  you  get  the  velocity  of  three  feet  per  second, 
it  would  give  them  good  ventilation. 

If  this  amount  of  air  entered  at  the  temperature  suitable  for  living 
and  breathing,  say  65°  or  70°,  and  the  temperature  outside  was  10°,  the 
loss  of  heat  through  walls  and  windows  would  be  such  as  to  keep  the 
room  at  a  temperature  much  too  cold  to  live  in.  To  make  the  room, 
therefore,  fit  to  live  in  (air  at  70°  or  thereabouts),  air  must  enter  in  very 
much  larger  quantities,  or  it  must  enter  at  a  temperature  much  above 
70°,  and  you  must  trust  to  mixing  it  with  the  air  cooled  by  the  windows 
and  walls  to  maintain  a  living  temperature.  If  we  assume  now  that 
each  square  foot  of  glass  will  cool  -1%  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  from 
the  inside  temperature  to  the  outside  temperature,  we  have  for  dining- 
room  150  square  feet  glass  X  i^  =  225  X  60  =  13,500,  of  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  of  air  cooled,  say,  from  70°  to  10°,  or  by  60°  Fah. 

This  gives  us  13,500  cubic  feet  of  air  warmed  (or  cooled)  60°,  or 
810,000  cubic  feet  warmed  or  cooled  i°,  as  the  amount  necessary  to 
maintain  the  heat.  Of  this  amount  we  require  at  least  5,400  cubic  feet 
of  air  warmed  from  10°  to  70°  to  maintain  ventilation,  and  as  only 
5,400  will  actually  come  through  the  register  or  flue  with  a  velocity  of 
j  YZ  feet  per  second,  we  must  admit  it  warmer,  and  this  will  give  us  13,500 
X  60  =  810,000  -*-  5,400  =  150°  as  the  temperature  at  which  the  air 
should  pass  the  register  for  such  conditions.  But  150°  Fah.  is  a  tem- 
perature that  cannot  be  readily  obtained  from  ordinary  steam-coils, 
though  it  can  be  from  a  furnace,  and  100°  to  120°  is  all  that  can  be 
looked  for  with  ordinary  steam-apparatus. 

As  we  are  now  forced  to  take  air  at  100°,  we  have  100°  -*-  810,000 
=  8,100  as  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  at  the  temperature  neces- 
sary to  maintain  the  heat  of  the  room,  and  the  heat  we  must  maintain  as 


88  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

well  as  ventilation.  This  divided  by  5,400 — the  quantity  of  air  that 
will  pass  safely  through  one  square  foot  of  flue — gives  1.5  square  foot 
as  the  cross-section  of  the  flue  for  the  dining-room.  This,  fortunately 
for  us,  gives  air  in  excess  of  fair  ventilation,  and  what  may  be  called 
almost  good  ventilation. 

We  are  required  now  either  to  get  a  greater  than  a  minimum  velocity 
of  air  through  a  given  size  flue,  or  to  provide  a  flue  of  greater  size,  for 
we  are  forced  to  take  air  between  100°  and  120°. 

Therefore,  with  a  minimum  velocity  of  i  ^  feet  for  first  floor  and 
three  feet  for  second  floors,  we  have  approximately  flues  of  one  square 
foot  of  cross-section  for  each  2,500  cubic  feet  of  space  in  first-story 
rooms,  and  the  same  for  5,000  cubic  feet  of  space  in  second-story 
rooms  and  those  above,  when  we  allow  for  a  practical  magnitude  to 
overcome  friction  of  turns,  etc.  No  flue  should  be  less  than  8x12 
inches. 

To  find  the  coil  for  a  given  room  or  flue,  take  all  the  air  passed 
for  an  hour — say  8,100  cubic  feet  for  dining-room  ;  multiply  it  by  the 
degrees  it  is  warmed,  and  divide  it  by  48,000,  and  it  gives  the  number 
of  pounds  of  water  to  be  condensed  in  the  coil  in  an  hour.  Average 
coils  and  radiators  will  condense  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  a 
pound  of  water  per  hour  per  square  foot  of  surface. 

Let  the  open  fret-work  of  the  register  have  equal  area  with  the 
flue. 

On  page  32  of  Tuttle  &  Bailey's  catalogue  of  registers  will  be 
found  the  capacity  in  square  inches  of  openings  through  fret-work. 
With  forced  ventilation,  flues  may  be  very  much  smaller. 


DETERMINING  THE  SIZE  OF  HOT-AIR  FLUES. 

Q.  CAN  you  give  any  rule  for  determining  the  size  of  a  hot-air 
flue  with  reference  to  the  cubical  capacity  of  a  room  ?  To  illustrate  : 
say  on  first  floor,  one  square  inch  of  radiating  surface  to  one  cubic  foot 
of  space,  three-quarters  for  second  floor,  and  less  for  upper  floors. 
Now,  on  this  basis,  what  is  the  rule  for  determining  size  of  the  ducts 
and  cold-air  inlet,  and  proportions  between  them  ? 


VENTILATION.  89 

A.  To  aid  in  the  computation  of  dimensions  of  flues  the  following 
was  published  in  the  Pascal  Iron-Works  Catalogue  in  1870  : 

"  The  following  dimensions  of  flues  will  insure  a  supply  of  warm 
air  : 

"For  the  heating- flues. — Height  of  bottom  of  register  above  upper 
surface  of  radiator,  i,  2,  3,  4,  6,  8,  10,  15,  20,  25,  30,  40  feet  and  above  ; 
square  inches  of  flue  needed  for  each  square  foot  of  radiating  surface 
which  the  room  requires,  2,  1.41,  1.16,  i.oo,  0.82,  0.71,  0.63,  0.52.  0.45, 
0.40,  0.35,  0.32  inch. 

"To  the  area  of  cross-section  obtained  from  these  figures  add 
twenty  square  inches  to  compensate  for  resistance  of  mouth  of  inlet 
and  of  discharge,  or  to  give  practical  magnitude  to  small  flues. 

"For  the  ventilating- flues. — The  same  rule  may  be  followed,  only 
the  height  is  to  be  taken  from  top  of  register  to  top  of  chimney  or 
ventilating-stack  or  outlet." 

Heating-flues  should  be  tin-lined. 

Example — Room  of  3,150  cubic  feet  capacity,  latitude  of  Philadel- 
phia, north-west  exposure,  first  story.  Ratio  of  one  square  foot  radiating 
surface  to  63  cubic  feet  space,  where  the  glass  window-surface  in  the 
room  is  not  over  one  of  surface  to  100  of  space,  would  require  50  square 
feet  of  radiating  surface  for  steam  not  over  15  pounds  pressure. 
Suppose  top  of  radiators  to  be  two  feet  below  bottom  of  registers  (or 
surface,  if  they  are  flat) .-.  50X1.41  =  70.5  +  20=  90.5  square  inches,  or 
a  heating-flue  9x10  inches  would  be  demanded.  Suppose  top  of  venti- 
lating-chimney  to  be  40  feet  above  top  of  ventilating-register  .-.  50X0.32 
=  16  +  20  =  36  square  inches,  or  a  ventilating-flue  9x4  inches  would 
be  needed. 

These  figures  are  wholly  empirical,  and  the  36  square  inches  is 
evidently  too  small  for  an  outlet,  when  the  inlet  to  the  room  is  90.5  ; 
but  they  will  serve  to  guide  a  practical  man  who  has  had  experience 
in  heating  in  proportioning  his  requirements  on  the  builder. 

Cold-air  ducts  supplying  air  to  numerous  hot-air  registers  can 
safely  have  a  cross-section  as  large  as  the  sum  of  all  the  heating-flues, 
but  it  will  be  found  that  the  inducement  of  the  high  flues  will  allow  the 
cold  main  or  duct  to  be  throttled  by  some  kind  of  shut-off  with 


QO  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

advantage,  while  in  any  steam  or  hot-water  apparatus  some  automatic 
contrivance  should  close  the  cold  duct  whenever  the  steam  or  heat  of 
the  water  goes  down. 


WINDOW-VENTILATORS. 

Q.  ONE  of  the  teachers  of  an  institution  for  girls  has  applied  to  me 
to  know  whether  any  improvements  have  recently  been  introduced  in 
methods  of  continuous  window-ventilation.  The  method  by  introducing 
into  the  sash  a  revolving  fan  is  of  course  familiar.  Some  one  patented, 
a  few  years  ago,  a  device  for  "  filtering  "  the  air  which  is  permitted  to 
pass  through  wire  gauze  at  the  base  of  a  window,  allowing  a  constant, 
gentle  draught,  free  from  dust,  or  by  substituting  muslin,  free  from 
moisture,  to  some  extent  if  the  muslin  be  changed  from  time  to  time. 

This  latter  method  was  introduced  into  one  or  two  schools  of  New 
York  City  by  joint  recommendation  of  my  friend,  Dr.  W.  Gill  Wylie 
(40  West  Fortieth  Street),  and  myself.  Dr.  Wylie  suggested  to  me 
to  write  to  you  on  the  subject.  If  you  can  kindly  refer  me  to  any 
articles  containing  an  account  of  further  improvements,  I  shall  esteem 
it  a  favor. 

A.  There  are  many  devices  for  securing  ventilation  by  windows 
without  producing  unpleasant  draughts,  the  principle  of  all  being  the 
same — viz.,  to  direct  the  incoming  current  of  air  upward  toward  the 
ceiling  by  means  of  a  deflecting-plate.  Wire  gauze  and  coarse  muslin 
are  used  in  many  of  these  contrivances,  to  keep  out  dust,  flies,  etc.,  and 
to  break  up  the  incoming  air  into  fine  streams,  and  thus  avoid  draughts. 

The  latest  patents  of  this  kind  we  have  seen  are  that  of  J.  G. 
Bronson  (No.  270,733,  dated  January  16,  1883),  for  an  extra  sash  or 
deflector-plate,  and  that  of  Sarah  B.  Stearns  (No.  271,146,  dated 
January  23,  1883),  for  a  deflecting-plate  with  a  gauze  or  cloth  strainer. 
Copies  of  the  specifications  and  drawings  for  these  patents  can  readily 
be  obtained  from  the  Patent  Office  in  Washington. 

The  practical  working  of  such  contrivances  depends  on  the  mode 
in  which  the  room  is  heated,  on  the  presence  of  an  open  fire-place  or 
special  foul-air  flues,  on  the  external  temperature,  and  on  the  direction 
and  force  of  the  wind.  As  adjuncts  to  a  properly  arranged  system  of 


VENTILATION.  91 

ventilation  they  are  convenient  and  useful,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  rely 
upon  them  solely  to  secure  ventilation  in  a  room  containing  a  number 
of  persons,  as  for  example,  in  a  school-room. 

Some  additional  particulars  about  simple  means  of  window-ventila- 
tion are  given  in  the  abstracts  of  Dr.  Lincoln's  paper  on  school-houses 
in  the  Sanitary  Engineer,  Vol.  VI.,  page  186,  and  by  Dr.  J.  S.  Billings, 
Vol,  IV.,  page  130. 

WINDOW-VENTILATORS. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  writes  : 

"  I  notice  an  inquiry  regarding  window-ventilators.  Having  had 
occasion  to  use  something  of  the  kind,  I  have  devised  and  used  with 
very  good  results  a  modification  of  the  old  plan  of  setting  a  strip  under 
the  sash,  for  the  sake  of  the  air  entering  at  meeting-rails,  of  which 
please  find  a  sketch  (Figure  33)  inclosed. 


FIGURE  33. 

"  It  consists  simply  of  a  piece  of  board  as  long  as  the  width  of 
window  and  three  or  four  inches  high,  set  about  an  inch  back  of  the 
sash  and  secured  in  place  by  vertical  grooves  in  the  ends,  sliding  over 
two  round-headed  screws  in  the  stop-head  at  each  side  of  window. 


92  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

"  By  raising  the  sash  a  trifle,  air  is  admitted  in  a  thin  sheet  and 
deflected  upward,  and  there  is  the  same  action  at  the  meeting-rails, 
which  is  all  I  have  ever  seen  attempted  by  anything  of  the  sort.  A  wire- 
gauze  screen  can  be  bracketed  to  the  outside  of  the  strip  if  desired. 

"  The  cost  is  nominal ;  there  is  no  interference  with  using  and 
fastening  the  sash  in  the  usual  way  ;  the  strip  can  be  removed  in  an 
instant,  and  whether  it  is  in  or  out,  the  window  is  not  disfigured." 


REMOVING  VAPOR  FROM   DYE-HOUSE. 

Q.  COULD  you  inform  me  of  the  best  way  to  take  steam  out  of  a 
dye-house  ?  It  is  easy  enough  to  do  this  in  the  summer  by  opening 
the  windows  and  letting  it  blow  out,  but  in  the  winter  the  cold  air  pre- 
vents it  from  coming  out. 

It  has  been  tried  to  draw  it  out  with  a  fan,  but  that  does  not  answer 
the  purpose.  The  fan,  of  course,  draws  out  the  air,  but  leaves  the 
vapor  in  the  house.  We  have  also  tried  to  ventilate  the  steam  through 
the  roof  by  artificial  heat,  but  with  the  same  result  as  the  fan. 

This  is  a  dye-house  for  a  hat  factory,  and  the  steam  is  of  a  very 
wet  nature,  conse- 
quently like  a  vapor, 
and  not  like  the 
ordinary  steam  from 
a  boiler. 


o 

o 

0 

0 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

0 

o 

A.  We  think  a 
properly  arranged 
fan  would  do  more 
to  remove  the  vapor 
from  the  room  than 
any  other  means, 
excepting,  perhaps, 
an  aspirating-shaft 

of  large  dimensions  and  high,  with  heating  surfaces  within  the  shaft, 
arranged  with  a  view  to  getting  the  greatest  results  from  the  smallest 
quantity  of  heating  surface. 


FIGURE  34. 


VENTILATION.  93 

In  any  case  provision  must  be  made  for  admitting  as  much  air,  and 
as  fast  as  the  fan  or  aspirator  is  capable  of  drawing  it  out. 

The  air  is  the  vehicle  which  holds  the  steam  or  vapor  in  suspen- 
sion, and  when  it  becomes  surcharged,  the  vapor  being  the 
lightest,  the  superabundance  will  be  found  near  the  ceiling,  so  that 
whether  a  shaft  or  fan  be  used,  the  air  must  be  drawn  from  the  top. 

A  way  to  remove  moisture  from  the  air  of  a  drying-room,  without 
changing  the  air,  is  to  condense  it  against  pipes,  placed  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  room,  through  which  cold  water  is  circulated. 

Troughs  are  arranged  under  these  pipes  to  receive  the  water  so 
formed  and  conduct  it  without  the  house. 

Professor  William  P.  Trowbridge,  of  Columbia  College,  in  a  paper 
read  at  the  first  regular  meeting  of  1882  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  says  :  "  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that 
steam-coils  properly  devised  and  adapted  to  chimneys  or  flues  will  give 
a  more  efficient  ventilation  than  the  blower,  for  less  cost  of  construction 
and  maintenance  ;"  He  also  says  :  "The  arrangement  of  the  steam- 
pipes  in  such  a  manner  that  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  will  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  air  with  the  least  resistance  to  its  motion  is  a  matter  of 
importance  ; "  and  he  suggests  that  a  flue  may  be  divided  into  smaller 
flues  at  its  base  with  sheet-iron  diaphragms,  between  which  the  vertical 
pipes  should  be  placed,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  Figure  34. 


VENTILATION    OF   THE    CUNARD    STEAMER    "UMBRIA." 

THE  steamer  "Umbria,"  the  latest  addition  to  the  fleet  of  the  well- 
known  Cunard  Company,  reached  New  York  on  her  maiden  trip  on 
November  10,  1884.  She  was  built  at  the  works  of  John  Elder  &  Co^ 
near  Glasgow,  Scotland,  and  is  520  feet  long  by  57  feet  3  inches  beamr 
with  a  depth  of  hold  to  upper  deck  of  41  feet ;  her  measurement  being; 
over  8,000  tons,  and,  though  not  the  longest,  is  probably  the  largest 
vessel  afloat,  except  the  "  Great  Eastern."  She  is  built  of  steel,  and  in 
the  finest  manner  known  to  marine  architects.  She  is  divided  into  ten 


94 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


water-tight  compartments,  with  doors  sliding  across  the  ship  instead  of 
moving  like  a  portcullis,  or  swinging. 

Her  engines  are  of  the  inverted  compound  type,  being  composed  of 
one  high-pressure  cylinder,  72  inches  in  diameter,  between  two  low- 
pressure  cylinders,  each  of  105  inches  diameter,  one  fore  and  the  other 
aft  of  the  primary  cylinder — the  stroke  of  all  being  six  feet.  The  pis- 
ton-rods and  connect- 
ing-rods are  of  forged 
steel,  the  former  being 
n^  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  the  latter  15 
inches.  The  main 
shaft  is  24  inches  in 
diameter,  and  has  a 
thrust-bearing  of  17 
feet  in  length,  with  as 
many  collars  on  the 
shaft,  which  run  in 
bearing-shoes,  each  of 
which  is  capable  of 
separate  adjustment. 

She  has  accom- 
modations for  about 
800  first-cabin  passen- 
gers.  Her  music- 
saloon  is  76  feet  long 
by  the  full  width  of 
the  ship,  and  is  about  8  feet  in  the  clear  underneath  the  deck-beams. 
The  dining-saloon  is  immediately  below  the  music-saloon,  and  is  of 
the  same  dimensions  ;  a  domed  skylight  giving  downward  light  to 
both  through  a  well-hole  of  equal  dimensions  through  the  deck  of  the 
saloon. 

Systematic  ventilation  and  artificial  warming  are  provided  to  all 
parts  of  the  ship,  the  sailors'  forecastle,  even,  and  the  firemen's  quarters 
being  provided  with  both.  The  system  of  ventilation  used  is  known  as 


FIGURES  35  AND  36. 


VENTILATION.  95 

Green's  patent.  In  the  ordinary  ship's  ventilators  are  placed  injecting 
nozzles,  Figures  35  and  36,  through  which  air,  at  a  pressure  of  five  pounds 
per  square  inch,  is  discharged,  causing  an  induced  current  of  air  either 
in  or  out  of  the  compartments  of  the  ship,  or  both,  as  the  case  may 
require.  An  air-compressing  engine  is  provided,  and  .situated  in  a  part 
of  the  main  engine-room  set  apart  for  it.  It  is  supplied  with  steam 
from  the  main  boilers,  and  also  from  a  donkey-boiler  to  be  used  when 
in  port.  This  engine  compresses  air  within  reservoirs,  from  which  it 
is  released  into  the  injecting  nozzles  through  pipes  of  about  one 
inch  internal  diameter,  which  lead  from  a  trunk-main  which  runs 
the  whole  length  'of  the  ship  on  both  sides.  Outward  movements 
of  air  are  secured  through  the  hollow  steel  masts  and  through  the 
annular  spaces  between  the  smoke-stack  and  jackets  which  surround 
them. 

Each  stateroom  is  not  supplied  with  a  separate  ventilator,  but  at 
short  intervals  along  the  passages  they  are  to  be  found. 

The  heating  is  done  by  copper  pipes  of  about  three  inches  in  diam- 
eter, over  which  is  placed  a  fret-work  guard  of  cast  brass.  These 
heaters  are  principally  in  the  passages  where  the  cool  air  is  admitted, 
and  heat  and  a  change  of  fresh  air  to  the  staterooms  is  secured  by 
means  of  fret- work  between  the  transoms  and  fixed  lattice- work  panels 
in  the  lower  parts  of  the  stateroom  doors,  causing  the  heat  and  air  to 
enter  by  the  latter  and  escape  by  the  former. 

Figures  37  and  38  are  details  of  the  heating-pipes  and  guards.  They 
are  the  result  of  circumstances,  and  are  efficient  ;  but  an  improvement 
that  we  would  suggest  would  be  to  have  them  so  arranged  that  a  stew- 
ard, in  cleaning,  could  remove  the  guards  to  properly  cleanse  under 
them — which  might  be  done  by  having  them  hinged  at  one  side,  that 
they  could  be  turned  over.  As  it  is,  where  a  hose  can  be  used,  they 
can  be  kept  ordinarily  clean  ;  but  in  the  stateroom  passages,  and  under 
settees  and  dining-room  tables,  this  cannot  be  done,  and  the  scrubbing 
or  sweeping  which  has  to  be  resorted  to  forces  dust,  etc.,  deeper  into 
them.  Steam  is  taken  from  the  main  or  donkey  boilers,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  the  condensation  is  returned  to  the  hot  well  or  used  for 
washing  purposes  aboard  ship. 


96  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

For  the  purpose  of  heating  water  for  the  baths  and  for  washing 
when  there  is  not  sufficient  condensation  from  the  heating-apparatus,  or 
when  it  is  not  in  use,  two  special  condensers  are  supplied,  and  a  still 
also  is  provided  for  making  drinking-water,  should  the  supply  that  is 
carried  in  tanks  be  not  enough,  as  on  a  long  or  delayed  voyage.  Two 
of  Haslen's  (of  Leeds,  England)  dry-air  refrigerating-apparatuses  are 
provided — one  small  for  the  storerooms,  and  one  large  for  a  cargo 
compartment.  Their  principle  is  to  compress  air  into  reservoirs, 
through  which  the  sea-water  is  circulated  in  small  pipes — somewhat  in 
appearance  like  a  surface  condenser — for  the  purpose  of  extracting  the 


FIGURE  37.  FIGURE  38. 

heat  caused  by  compression.  The  air  is  then  liberated,  when  it  imme- 
diately expands,  and  is  in  condition  to  seize  on  the  heat  of  surround- 
ing objects,  even  to  the  point  of  producing  ice.  The  actual  capacity  of 
the  large  machine  is  not  known  to  the  engineer,  but,  as  an  experiment, 
130  tons  of  dressed  meat  were  taken  to  Liverpool  on  the  return 
voyage,  preserved  this  way. 

The  ship  is  lighted  throughout  by  incandescent  electric-lights,  the 
system  being  Andrews',  of  Glasgow.  The  dynamos  are  Siemens', 
and  are  four  in  number,  each  driven  by  one  of  Brotherhood's  three- 
cylinder  engines. 

The  vessel  is  commanded  by  Captain  Cook,  and  her  chief  engi- 
neer is  Mr.  John  Heggie. 


VENTILATION.  97 

CALCULATING  SIZES  OF  FLUES  ANB  REGISTERS. 

Q.  CAN  you  tell  me  if  there  is  any  published  data  giving  the  size 
of  heating  flues  and  registers  for  steam  and  hot-air  heating  ? 

A.  The  size  of  a  flue  in  a  wall  or  the  opening  through  a  floor  will 
all  depend  on  the  amount  of  air  required  in  a  room  in  a  given  time  and 
the  velocity  you  are  likely  to  obtain  with  any  particular  apparatus.  The 
flues  or  registers  for  hot-water  apparatus  should  represent  the  maxi- 
mum of  size,  as  the  temperature  of  the  air-currents  will  be  lower  than 
with  any  other  class  of  heating-apparatus,  and  may  be  said  to  represent 
the  minimum  of  temperatures.  On  the  other  hand,  the  air  from  a  fur- 
nace being  warmer  than  from  a  steam  or  hot-water  apparatus,  the  mini- 
mum of  flues  may  be  used.  This,  of  course,  is  all  on  the  assumption 
of  natural  currents — no  forcing,  as  with  a  fan,  being  used. 

The  force  which  produces  motion  in  a  heating-flue  is  the  differ- 
ence between  the  weight  of  a  column  of  warm  air  in  the  flue  from  its 
start  at  the  heating-coil  or  furnace,  until  it  reaches  the  outside  air  at 
the  top  of  the  house,  and  a  corresponding  column  of  the  outside  atmos- 
phere of  whatever  temperature  it  may  be.  If  the  inside  column  of  air 
be  twenty-five  feet  high  and  you  warm  it  120°  Fah.,  you  increase  its 
bulk  one-quarter — or,  in  other  words,  it  will  have  to  be  31^  feet  high 
to  give  it  equal  weight  with  a  column  of  air  of  the  density  from  which 
it  had  been  warmed.  But  as  the  height  of  the  heated  column  is  limited 
by  the  height  of  the  flue — twenty-five  feet — the  force  of  the  cold  col- 
umn presses  in  on  it  with  a  velocity  equal  to  that  acquired  by  a  body 
falling  6^  feet  ;  the  velocity  of  the  descent  equaling  eight  times  the 
square  root  of  the  height  of  the  descent  in  feet  or  decimals  of  a  foot,  or 

\f~g  A" 

16.09  x  6.25  =  20  feet  per  second  as  the  velocity  in  the  flue  ;  in  which 

g  is  the  distance  through  which  a  body  falls  in  a  second  of  time  and  h 
the  distance  fallen  through.  Presumably  in  practice  one-half  this 
velocity  cannot  be  exceeded,  and  some  authorities  claim  a  coefficiency 
of  .4  as  about  right  for  ordinary  circumstances  of  flues  and  registers. 

For  more  information  on  this  subject  see  Billings'  "  Ventilation  and 
Heating,"  page  31,  and  Hood's  "  Warming  and  Ventilating,"  page  359. 


98  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

•CHURCH  VENTILATION. 

Q.  WHAT  would  be  the  best  mode  of  drawing  the  hot-air  from 
between  two  roofs  of  a  church  building,  the  space  being  between 
ceiling  and  roof  ? 

If  a  screw  is  recommended,  what  would  be  the  circumference  or 
diameter  ? 

I  would  like  to  attach  a  windmill  to  draw  the  hot-air  out. 

A.  If  it  is  simply  to  cool  the  space  between  the  ceiling  and  the 
roof  of  a  Gothic  structure,  we  think  louvered  windows  at  the  ends  and 
a  louvered  ventilator  at  the  apex  should  suffice. 

If  it  is  necessary  that  the  vent-flues  of  the  church  or  the  ventilators 
over  the  chandeliers  open  into  this  space,  and  there  is  no  artificial 
outlet,  make  suitable  outlets  similar  to  the  above. 

If,  again,  you  wish  to  remove  warmed  or  vitiated  air  from  the 
church  faster  than  it  can  go  out  by  such  flues  or  openings  as  you  may 
chance  to  have,  by  natural  currents,  a  fan  may  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage. 

The  size  of  the  fan  will  depend  on  the  amount  of  air  to  be 
changed  in  a  given  time,  and  a  fan  of  the  class  used  in  the  Capitol  at 
Washington,  five  feet  in  diameter,  will  move  from  seven  to  twelve  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  according  to  the  speed  at  which  it 
is  run. 

There  are  other  classes  of  fans  in  the  market,  of  which  the  makers 
will  be  glad  to  furnish  the  capacity  and  size,  if  you  state  the 
quantity  of  air  you  wish  to  remove. 


STEAM. 


ECONOMY  OF  USING  EXHAUST  STEAM  FOR  HEATING. 

Q.  I  HAVE  in  charge  two  tubular  boilers  4^x14',  70  pounds  steam 
pressure,  and  an  engine  22"x  36",  adjustable  cut-off  one-half,  78  revolu- 
tions. The  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine  heats  three  floors  6o'x4o'. 
I  am  about  to  connect  a  Korting  condenser  to  the  engine,  and  get 
about  28-inch  vacuum  ;  this  will  relieve  the  engine  of  all  back-pressure, 
besides  a  gain  of  power.  Then  I  will  heat  the  three  floors  by  live 
steam,  and  return  the  same  directly  to  boilers  by  means  of  a  Pratt 
return-trap.  I  will,  also,  give  them  more  heat  than  by  using  the 
exhaust  steam.  I  will  use  a  pressure-regulator,  and  give  seven  pounds 
to  heat  the  building.  I  would  like  some  information  as  to  what  the 
economy  will  be  in  favor  of  using  the  condenser  and  trap  over  heating 
by  exhaust  steam. 

A.  To  avoid  a  misunderstanding  about  the  question  of  using 
exhaust  steam  for  warming,  we  will  say  that  when  all,  or  even  a  com- 
paratively small  quantity  of  it,  can  be  utilized  and  properly  condensed, 
economy  Is  in  favor  of  throwing  a  slight  back-pressure  on  the  engine 
and  using  the  exhaust  steam.  The  commoner  and  poorer  the  engine 
the  larger  the  ratio  will  be  in  favor  of  utilizing  the  exhaust  steam  for 
heating. 

In  the  present  case,  cutting  off  at  one-half  stroke,  the  mean  pres- 
sure in  your  cylinder  may  be  assumed  at  57  pounds  per  square  inch 
when  there  is  one  pound  back-pressure  above  atmosphere  on  the 
engine,  which  will  develop  a  total  (not  indicated)  horse-power  of  304. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  expand  your  steam  down  to  14  pounds 
below  atmosphere,  your  mean  pressure  will  be  seventy  pounds  in  the 
cylinder,  with  a  total  horse-power  of  374,  which  will  be  a  gain  of  70 
horse-power,  without  evaporating  any  more  water.  If  we  assume  you 
now  use  45  pounds  of  water  per  nominal  horse-power,  your  total  evap- 
oration will  be  13,680  pounds  of  water,  whereas  if  you  develop  374 


100  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

horse-power  under  the  same  conditions  (non-condensing),  you  would 
have  to  evaporate  16,830  pounds  of  water — 3,150  pounds  more.  We 
thus  appear  to  gain  23.5  per  cent.,  but  when  we  consider  that  we  lose 
1 1.5  per  cent,  due  to  the  difference  of  temperature  of  feed-water  between 
212°  and  100°,  we  may  consider  the  actual  gain  as  only  35  horse- 
power, or  the  equivalent  of  1,545  pounds  of  water  evaporated.  The 
gain  in  economy  is  now  with  the  condensing-engine,  until  such  time  as 
the  steam  required  for  the  warming  of  the  building  reaches  1,545 
pounds  in  weight.  The  condensed  steam  or  water  required  for  the 
space  you  mention  will  be  about  500  pounds  per  hour,  but  could  all  the 
condensed  steam,  which  would  leave  the  engine  when  using  high  pres- 
sure to  its  fullest  capacity,  be  utilized,  it  would  warm  in  average  build- 
ings nearly  2,000,000  cubic  feet. 

We  assume  your  question  to  be  hypothetical,  as  your  boilers  are 
evidently  small  for  the  duty. 


HEAT  OF  STEAM  FOR  DIFFERENT    CONDITIONS. 

Q.  A  DISPUTE  has  arisen  between  two  local  engineers  and  myself 
with  regard  to  the  value  of  steam  for  heating  under  different  condi- 
tions, and,  as  we  cannot  agree,  we  have  decided  to  refer  the.  matter  to 
you  for  a  decision,  «A  claims  that  one-pound  weight  of  low-pressure 
steam,  say  at  5  to  10  pounds  above  atmosphere,  will  warm  more  air 
when  condensed  to  water  than  if  the  steam  was  high-pressure,  50  or  60 
pounds.  B  claims  that  the  high-pressure  steam,  being  the  hottest,  must 
be  able  to  warm  more  air  ;  and  I  claim  that  as  "  the  heat  of  steam  is  the 
same  for  all  pressures,"  there  can  be  no  difference.  Who  is  right  ? 

A.  If  a  pound  of  steam  at  seven  pounds  pressure  above  atmos- 
phere is  condensed  to  water  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  steam  (232° 
Fah.),  952  units  of  heat  will  be  realized.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
steam  at  60  pounds  pressure  is  condensed  to  water  at  307°  (the  tem- 
perature of  the  steam),  only  899  units  of  heat  are  realized.  This  is  on 
the  supposition  that  the  steam  is  condensed  to  the  temperature  of  its 
water  only,  and  then  A  is  right.  But  from  your  letter  we  cannot  say 
that  B  takes  that  view  of  it,  and  should  he  consider,  or  be  of  the  belief, 


STEAM.  101 

that  the  steam  in  both  cases  would  be  cooled  to  the  same  temperature 
— say  water  at  atmosphere — he  (B)  would  be  right ;  as  in  that  case  the 
units  of  heat  from  60  pounds  pressure  of  steam  to  water  at  212°  will  be 
985  per  pound  of  steam  ;  while  steam  in  cooling  from  seven  pounds  to 
the  same  temperature  gives  off  but  972  units. 

With  regard  to  yourself,  the  heat  of  steam  is  not  the  same  for  all 
pressures,  as  at  200  pounds  per  square  inch  the  total  heat  of  steam  is 
very  nearly  1,200  heat-units,  counting  from  the  freezing  point,  whereas 
with  steam  at  atmosphere,  or  a  pound  above  it,  1,147  heat-units  is  all 
that  can  be  realized  from  it  by  cooling  it  to  32°  Fah. 


SUPERHEATING  STEAM  BY  THE  USE  OF  COILS. 

Q.  You  would  do  me  a  great  favor  if  you  could  answer  the  follow- 
ing questions  :  (i)  Can  I  superheat  steam  to  400°  Fah.  from  a  boiler 
at  70  pounds  pressure  on  steam-gauge  by  passing  it  through  a  coil,  4^ 
feet  long,  with  cast-iron  return-bends,  ten  pieces  of  i-inch  pipe  in  the 
coil  ?  (2)  Would  it  be  safe  to  risk  this  coil  in  a  hot  fire  and  let  the 
steam  on  it  at  above  pressure  ?  Please  state  the  best  and  safest  way  to 
get  above  degree  of  heat  in  the  steam,  and  oblige. 

A.  (i)  In  our  estimation  you  can,  but  the  success  of  your  appa- 
ratus will  depend  entirely  on  the  heat  of  your  fire  and  the  quantity  of 
steam  you  may  pass  in  a  given  time. 

(2)  If  your  coil  is  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  a  fire,  the  proba- 
bility is  that  it  will  burn  out,  no  matter  how  much  steam  you  pass 
through  it,  and  your  steam  will  be  heated  above  400°  Fah. 

If  you  find  by  experiment  exactly  the  length  of  coil  that  will  be 
necessary  to  heat  your  steam  to  400°  Fah.,  you  must  always  have  the 
given  or  fixed  quantity  of  steam  passing  the  coil.  Should  you  pass  less 
steam,  it  will  be  heated  above  the  required  standard  and  the  coil  endan- 
gered, and  should  you  pass  more  steam  the  temperature  will  become 
reduced.  If  you  wish  to  make  a  permanent  success  of  a  superheater, 
place  the  coil  in  a  part  of  the  furnace  or  flues  where  the  heat  is  from 
50  to  100  degrees  greater  than  the  temperature  you  wish  the  super- 
heated steam  to  have,  and  make  the  coil  of  such  length  by  experiment 


102  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

as  to  give  the  desired  heat  when  the  full  quantity  is  in  use.  This  will 
prevent  the  burning  of  your  coil,  but  it  will  not  prevent  the  steam  from 
becoming  50  degrees  or  so  warmer  when  you  are  drawing  it  slowly 
through  the  coil. 


EFFECT    OF    USING   A   SMALL  EXHAUST  AS  A  HEATING 

COIL. 

Q.  I  WISH  to  ask  of  you  whether  it  would  be  confining  an  exhaust 
too  much  if  after  running  112  feet  from  the  engine  it  were  turned  into 
coils  whose  area  would  only  equal  seven-tenths  of  the  area  of  the 
exhaust  at  the  engine,  and  would  it  do  to  use  %-inch  pipe  in  the 
same,  or  in  the  coils  ? 

My  reason  in  inquiring  about  the  size  of  pipe  is  that  the  owner  has 
a  lot  of  ^4-inch  pipe,  and  says  if  he  cannot  use  them  here  he  will  have 
no  other  use  for  them,  and  will  consequently  have  them  on  hand.  I 
want  to  use  a  i^-inch  pipe. 

Again,  the  steam,  I  think,  will  be  sufficient  to  fill  them,  but  I 
would  ask  how  much  i^-inch  pipe  ought  the  exhaust  to  fill  from 
an  engine  whose  cylinder  is  io)4  inches  in  diameter  and  24  inches 
in  length,  making  eighty  revolutions  per  minute,  steam  40-pound 
pressure. 

A.  It  will  throw  a  back-pressure  on  your  engine,  but  not  sufficient 
to  counteract  the  gain  due  to  condensing  the  exhaust  steam  in  a  heat- 
ing-apparatus if  you  can  condense  it  all  or  a  large  portion  of  it. 

Of  course,  if  the  engine  is  now  worked  up  to  its  full  capacity  and 
there  is  no  power  to  spare,  you  must  not  increase  your  back-pressure. 
Three-quarter  inch  pipe  will  do  for  exhaust  steam  if  the  coils  used  are 
header-coils  and  are  short — say  not  longer  than  thirty  feet.  It  also 
appears  to  us  that  you  can  increase  the  number  of  pipes  in  height 
in  these  coils,  and  get  the  full  area  of  the  exhaust.  We  must  not  be 
understood  as  indorsing  ^-inch  pipe  for  exhaust-steam  work,  as  i-inch 
or  i  ^ -inch  is  better  ;  but  if  we  had  some  pipe  on  hand,  with  no  other 
use  for  it,  we  would  design  coils  from  it  in  which  we  would  use  exhaust 
steam.  Whether  you  will  have  exhaust  steam  enough  to  fill  them 
or  not  depends  on  how  much  pipe-surface  you  will  use. 


STEAM.  103 

If  you  carry  steam  full  stroke  in  a  io)4  x  24  cylinder,  pressure  40 
pounds,  revolutions  80,  you  will  pass  about  500  pounds  of  steam  into 
your  engine  in  an  hour.  To  condense  this  at  exhaust  pressure  you 
would  require  between  1,500  and  2,000  square  feet  of  average  heating- 
surface. 


EXPLOSION  OF  A  STEAM-TABLE. 

(From  the  Hartisburg  Telegram,  December  13,  1882.) 
THIS  morning,  about  quarter  past  seven,  a  singular  accident 
occurred  in  the  kitchen  at  the  Lochiel  Hotel.  One  of  the  adjuncts  of 
the  kitchen  is  a  long  table,  the  top  of  which  is  hollow  and  contains 
spaces  on  which  dishes  of  meat,  etc.,  are  placed  to  keep  them  warm. 
The  table  is  heated  with  steam,  which  is  forced  through  it  from  the 
engine  and  escapes  at  one  end.  This  morning  the  escape  was  shut  off 
by  some  means  entirely  inexplicable,  and  the  steam  was  forced  into  the 
table  until  it  could  hold  no  more,  in  consequence  of  which  there  was  an 
explosion,  accompanied  by  a  loud  report.  The  seams  of  the  table  were 
forced  open,  the  legs  twisted  and  bent,  and  the  whole  room  filled  with 
steam.  Dishes  were  thrown  into  the  air,  and  things  were  scattered 
about  promiscuously,  but  fortunately  no  one  was  near  enough  to  be 
injured.  The  damage  was  instantly  repaired,  and  things  moved  along 
smoothly  in  a  short  time. 

[Improvised  steam-tables  are  generally  unsafe.  All  steam-tables 
have  large  flat  surfaces,  which  we  believe  to  be  seldom  braced  or 
stayed,  the  stiffness  of  the  metal  of  the  top  and  bottom  being  depended 
on,  reinforced,  perhaps,  by  a  rib.  No  engineer  will  construct  a  water- 
leg  or  any  other  flat  surface  for  a  boiler,  say  30"  x  60",  and  not  brace 
it,  and  yet-they  will  rig  up  the  most  flimsy  contrivances  for  purposes 
such  as  above. — ED.] 

EXPLOSION    OF   A   STEAM-TABLE. 

Q.  I  CANNOT  quite  endorse  what  you  say  as  to  the  non-staying  of 
steam-pads,  such  as  used  at  the  Lochiel  Hotel  (Sanitary  Engineer,  VoL 
VII,  page  148). 


io4 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM -FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


TO 


I  have  for  years  constructed  similar  fittings,  and  in  scarcely  any 
case  is  it  necessary  to  stay  them,  being  one-half  inch  thick,  and  the 
steam  admitted  at  three  pounds  at  the  greatest,  and  the  condense  full 
open  three-quarter  inch  ;  little  or  no  pressure  is  likely  to  be  felt  on  the 
surfaces,,  as  the  steam  being  admitted  at  so  low  a  pressure  is  condensed 
almost  before  it  passes  through  the  table  But  on  "no"  account  in 
these  fittings  should  the  stop-valve  be  placed  in  the  condense-pipe,  as 
is,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  often  done,  with  the  false  notion  that  more  heat 
is  obtained.  This,  perhaps,  was  the  cause  of  the  explosion  at  the  above 
hotel. 

I  see  the  steam  was  from  the  engine  condense.  Now  this  is  unfair 
to  the  engine,  as  it  must  tend  to  give  a  back-pressure  to  the  engine. 

What  I  do  if  I  get  steam  for  cooking  and  serving  purposes  from 
the  engine-boiler,  say  at  40  to  50  pounds,  is  to  fix  a  stop-valve  at  A, 
Figure  39,  with  a  gauge-glass  above  it  at  B,  and  a  safety-valve  at  C. 

It  will  be  seen  that 
by  closing  A  the  steam 
can  be  regulated  to  any 
pressure  on  the  glass  B, 
say  ten  pounds,  or  what 
is  required  in  the  boiler- 
room  to  give  five  in  the 
kitchen  apartment.  If 
by  any  chance  it  gets  over 
_  *^ten  the  safety-valve 
L  ^  relieves  it,  and  so  prevents 

accidents     which     would 
otherwise  occur. 

Reducing-valves,  however  good,  when  once  fixed,  are  seldom  or 
never  touched,  whereas  this  small  contrivance  speaks  for  itself. 

A.  The  arrangement  described  above  will  do  if  one  has  a  weak 
steam-table  which  he  will  not  abandon  for  a  strong  and  properly  stayed 
one,  provided  there  is  no  valve  on  the  waste  or  condensed-water  pipe. 
But  it  must  also  be  attended  with  a  comparatively  great  loss  or  waste 
of  steam. 

It  all  depends  on  the  attention  given  to  the  valve  A.  If  A  is  not 
opened  sufficiently  the  cook  soon  knows  it,  because  his  table  is  not  hot 
enough  tp  suit  him  ;  but  he  cannot  tell  when  he  has  the  maximum  heat 
(without  wasting),  the  return  being  open. 


FIGURE  39. 


STEAM.  105 

The  notion  that  the  heat  is  obtained  by  a  valve  in  the  waste-pipe  is 
false,  but  that  heat  can  be  retained  by  it  is  correct,  and,  furthermore,  the 
temperatures  can  be  increased  by  it  (by  increasing  the  pressure),  which 
is  often  desirable. 

But  the  real  question  is,  Why  construct  .any  apparatus  so  frail 
(when  it  is  possible  to  do  otherwise)  that  special  contrivances,  liable  to 
get  out  of  order,  have  to  be  arranged  to  prevent  its  bursting? 


CUTTING  NIPPLES  AND  BENDING  PIPES. 


CUTTING  LARGE  NIPPLES. 

Q.  A  COUPLE  of  years  ago  steam-fitters  came  here  from  New  York 
to  do  some  work,  and  while  here  required  some  4-inch  close  nipples, 
which  they  succeeded  in  cutting  without  the  aid  of  a  lathe  or  pipe-cut- 
ting machine  ;  their  only  tools  being  large  stocks  and  dies  that  would 
cut  up  to  4-inch,  and  "  diamond  points" — /.  e.,  steel  chisels  with  pecu- 
liar-shaped points — and,  of  course,  a  vise. 

How  to  cut  small  close  nipples  we  know,  when  there  is  an  oppor- 
tunity of  passing  the  "  stocks "  over  the  coupling  which  holds  the 
nipple,  but  with  large  sizes,  especially  4-inch,  as  that  is  the  limit  of  the 
guide-bushing,  we  cannot  see  how  the  cutting  can  conveniently  and 
practically  be  done,  and  if  done  at  all,  how  it  can  be  straight,  as  it  is 
not  in  the  power  of  a  man  or  men  to  catch  a  4-inch  thread  straight  by 
main  force  with  the  die  turned. 

An  explanation  will  oblige  two  young  steam-fitters. 

A.  "  Thermus  "  sends  us  the  following  explanation  and  diagram 
(Figure  40) : 

It  is  presumed  that  the  steam-fitter  has  a  4-inch  stock  and  die  A, 
a  vise  B,  a  pair  of  4-inch  tongs  D,  and  a  promiscuous  assortment  of 
pipe  and  couplings. 

In  the  vise  B  fix  a  convenient  piece  of  4-inch  pipe  G,  on  which 
there  must  be  the  coupling  F,  which  forms  the  nipple-chuck  ;  on  the 
other  end  may  be  the  coupling  I.  Into  the  coupling  F  screw  the  (half- 
cut)  close  nipple.  Within  the  4-inch  pipe  G  slip  a  piece  of  3^£-inch 
pipe  H,  until  the  coupling  J  (3^ -inch)  comes  against  the  coupling  I. 
Then  reverse  the  die-plate  a  from  its  usual  position  in  the  stock  and 
pass  it  over  the  3^2  -inch  pipe,  bringing  the  large  side  of  the  die  against 
the  nipple  to  be  threaded.  The  lead-screw  and  guide  C  is  to  be  then 
run  inward  and  centered  on  the  pipe  H  by  the  set-screws,  or  the 
3)4 -inch  guide-bushings  may  be  used  if  there  are  not  enough  set- 
screws  to  properly  adjust  the  centre.  When  that  is  done,  prevent  the 


CUTTING    NIPPLES   AND   BENDING    PIPES.  107 

coupling  J  from  revolving  by  a  pair  of  tongs,  and  revolve  the  die- 
stocks  in  the  usual  manner. 

This  will  run  the  stocks .  off  the  guide  and  lead'Screw  and  force: 
the  die  on  the  pipe  straight. 


FIGURE  40. 


When  a  couple  of  full  turns  are  taken  and  the  die  has  "caught,'* 
slack  up  all  and  withdraw  the  3)4-inch  pipe  so  as  to  cut  the  remainder 
of  the  thread  without  unnecessary  friction. 


I08  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

If  one  is  going  to  make  a  business  of  cutting  4-inch  short  nipples 
in  this  way  he  must  provide  himself  with  a  pipe  G,  in  which  the  thread 
will  be  long  enough  to  run  through  the  coupling  and  meet  the  end  of 
the  nipple  E,  to  prevent  the  latter  from  running  into  the  coupling,  but 
for  once  or  twice  a  common  piece  will  do. 


CUTTING  CROOKED  THREADS. 

Q.  How  CAN  I  cut  a  crooked  thread  on  a  close  nipple  ?  I  fre- 
quently require  such  pieces,  but  have  to  bend  them  hot  in  a  fire, 
which  spoils  the  two  couplings  I  have  to  hold  them  in. 

A.  "  Thermus  "  replies  that  his  method  is  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration,  Figure  41. 

Secure  a  piece  of  pipe  G,  say  four  inches,  in  the  vise,  with  the 
coupling  F  for  a  u  nipple-chuck."  Insert  the  half-cut  nipple  E.  Then 
through  the  centre  of  all  affix  the  pipe  H,  say  2^ -inch  pipe,  using 
wedges  w  w  w  w,  to  hold  it  approximately  true.  At  the  end  use  a 
flange  K,  or  anything  which  will  keep  the  pipe  H  from  pulling  through. 
Then  apply  the  die  a  turned  in  the  stocks — /'.  e.,  with  the  largest  side 
outward  with  relation  to  the  stocks.  Then,  if  the  lead-screw  £,  into 
which  the  guide-bushing  c  (2^2  or  3  inches,  according  to  the  amount  of 
eccentricity  required)  is  fitted,  is  run  inward  and  fastened  as  shown, 
by  revolving  the  die  and  holding  the  centre  guide  H  from  revolv- 
ing a  crooked  thread  may  be  started.  When  the  die  is  fast 
on  the  thread,  so  as  not  to  strip,  the  whole  may  be  slackened  and 
removed,  and  the  thread  finished  without  unnecessary  friction  on  the 
lead-screw. 

Different  degrees  of  eccentricity  can  be  obtained  if  the  lead-screw  is 
fitted  with  three  or  more  set-screws,  otherwise  the  bushings  or  wooden 
wedges  will  have  to  be  depended  on. 

The  drawing  will  suggest  other  modifications  to  the  practical 
man. 


CUTTING    NIPPLES   AND   BENDING   PIPES. 


I09 


FIGURE  41. 


1IO  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

GETTING  A  CLOSE  NIPPLE  OUT  OF  A  COUPLING  AFTER 
A  THREAD  IS  CUT. 

Q.  I  NOTICE  "  Thermus's  "  explanation  of  how  a  4-inch  close  nipple 
may  be  cut  with  ordinary  stocks  and  dies,  but  I  would  like  to  ask  him 
what  use  a  4-inch  close  nipple,  or  any  close  nipple,  is  to  a  steam-fitter 
when  it  is  forced  as  tightly  within  a  common  coupling  as  it  will  natur- 
ally be  when  it  has  to  give  resistance  enough  by  friction  on  the  threads 
to  force  the  uncut  end  of  the  nipple  into  the  die  ?  My  experience  has 
been,  that  there  is  not  one  chance  in  ten  of  removing  it  without  spoil- 
ing it,  as  the  pressure  on  the  tongs  will  cut  into  it  and  make  it  oval,  as 
well  as  mar  the  threads  within  the  hook  of  the  tongs. 

A.  "  Thermus  "  sends  the  following  reply  : 

"  Nipple-cutting  is  looked  on  in  the  pipe-shop  as  lead-trap  making 
was  a  few  years  ago  by  the  plumbers — as  very  good  work  to  keep  the 
boys  at  when  there  is  nothing  doing  outside — and  is  so  much  detested 
by  a  good  workman  that  he  would  generally  go  home  if  there  was 
nothing  else  for  him  to  do. 

"  But  with  smooth,  beautifully  made  traps,  etc.,  have  come  machine- 
made  nipples  of  all  lengths  and  sizes,  which  can  be  bought  for  very 
little  more  than  the  same  length  of  pipe,  were  the  nipples  put  end  to 
end.  This,  of  course,  put  an  end  in  a  great  measure  to  cutting  nipples 
in  jobbing  shops,  and  will  probably  account  for  our  correspondent  not 
knowing  how  to  get  a  close  nipple  out  of  a  common  coupling.  But  it 
was  not,  I  am  sure,  to  make  close  nipples  for  the  trade  with  a  stock 
and  die  that  former  correspondents  wanted  the  information  ;  but  to  be 
able  to  cut  one  or  two  such  nipples  when  they  wanted  them  badly  and 
could  not  wait  to  send  to  a  large  city  for  them. 

"  Such  a  method  may  be  called  a  'trick  of  the  trade,'  or  a  finishing 
touch  to  the  piper's  education,  and  it  is  legitimate,  though  perhaps  not 
regular.  How  to  get  a  close  nipple  out  of  a  coupling  without  getting  it 
out  of  shape  is  another  'trick,'  or  it  may  be  several  of  them. 

"After  removing  the  die  from  the  nipple,  it  is  presumed  that  some 
kind  of  fitting  will  be  used  in  connection  with  the  nipple,  and  that  the 
screwing  of  the  fitting  on  to  the  nipple  before  it  is  removed  from  the 
coupling  will  not  prevent  its  being  used  where  it  is  required.  If  so, 


CUTTING    NIPPLES   AND   BENDING    PIPES.  Ill 

clean  the  thread,  lead  it,  and  screw  the  fitting  on  (say  it  is  an  elbow) 
until  it  is  sufficiently  tight  on  the  thread,  or  until  the  nipple  begins  to 
screw  into  the  coupling  further.  Then  hammer  the  coupling — not 
heavily — keeping  a  strain  on  the  elbow  in  a  direction  as  if  you  were 
going  to  unscrew  it.  After  a  few  light  blows  or  so  are  struck  the 
nipple  will  unscrew  from  the  coupling  easily,  but  will  remain  fast  in  the 
fitting  in  which  it  is  going  to  be  used. 

"If  the  nipple  must  be  taken  from  the  coupling  without  having  a 
fitting  on  it,  run  a  lock-nut  over  the  thread  on  the  nipple,  then 
screw  a  coupling  on  the  nipple  no  tighter  than  it  can  be  removed 
without  spoiling  the  latter ;  the  lock-nut  can  be  then  brought 
against  the  end  of  the  coupling  to  form  a  'jam-nut,'  when 
the  other  coupling  may  be  hammered,  as  before  explained,  and  the 
nipple  removed  by  using  a  tongs  on  the  second  coupling.  By  loosen- 
ing the  jam-nut,  the  second  coupling  may  then  be  removed." 


BENDING   PIPE. 

Q.  WE  have  occasion  frequently  to  bend  iron  gas  and  steam  pipe. 
As  a  general  thing  the  bends  are  unsightly,  either  flattening  the  pipe  or 
drawing  it  thin  on  the  back.  I  have  tried  filling  the  pipe  with  sand,  but 
I  cannot  see  that  it  improves  matters.  Is  there  any  simple  practical 
method  in  use  which  will  give  a  uniform  bend?  An  answer  through 
your  paper  will  greatly  oblige  a  constant  reader. 

A.  We  have  seen  bending-machines  for  this  purpose,  but  we  can- 
not say  whether  or  not  they  can  be  purchased  in  the  market.  We  think 
they  have  been  mostly  home-made.  They  consist  principally  of  a  lever 
with  a  grooved  wheel,  with  other  grooved  wheels  of  different  diameters, 
around  which  the  pipe  is  bent. 

The  ordinary  method  of  the  steam-fitter  is  to  bend  his  pipe  in  a 
vise  (without  filling),  in  the  manner  shown  in  Figure  42.  In  a  little 
time,  with  practice,  he  usually  succeeds  in  making  a  bend  on  most  sizes 
of  pipe  below  three  inches  in  diameter  that  will  not  be  so  much  out  of 
shape  as  to  attract  attention. 


112 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


The  method  is  to  heat  the  pipe  to  be  bent  the  whole  length  of  the 
bend,  if  possible,  so  as  to  complete  the  operation  at  once.  A  parallel- 
jawed  vise  must  be  used  which  is  sufficiently  sharp  in  the  serrations  of 
the  jaws  to  prevent  the  hot  pipe  from  being  drawn  from  it  when  pres- 
sure is  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows.  At  the  same  time  the 
pressure  exerted  by  the  vise- jaws  must  not  be  sufficient  to  flatten  the 
pipe  in  the  direction  of  the  grasp  of  the  jaws — simply  to  hold  it. 

If,  now,  force  is  applied  to  the  pipe  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows, 
the  pipe  begins  to  bend,  and  the  tendency  of  the  warm  part  of  the  pipe 

(within  the  vise- jaws) 
is  to  spread  in  the 
direction  of  the  grasp 

of   the   jaws;    but 

being  prevented  by 
the  jaws  from  becom- 
ing any  wider  than 
the  diameter  of  the 
pipe,  it,  as  we  may 
say,  prevents  the  arch 
from  spreading.  This 
makes  the  parts  which 
touch  the  vise  a  neu- 
tral line,  forcing  the 
inside  of  the  pipe  to 
compress  and  the  out- 
side to  elongate,  at 
the  same  time  keeping 
the  pipe  practically 
round  at  all  parts  of 
the  bend. 
If  a  pipe  has  been  warmed  too  much  of  its  length  and  cooled  with 

water  it  is  likely  to  pull  thin  on  the  back,  as  shown  in  Figure  43,  and 

be  irregular  in  the  radius  of  the  bend. 

Different  qualities  of  iron  act  differently  in  bending,  and  a  failure 

at  first  should  not  discourage  the  beginner.     The  neutral  line  of  the 


FIGURE  42. 


CUTTING    NIPPLES    AND    BENDING    PIPES.  113 

bend  which  touches  the  vise  becomes  chilled  and  compels  the  stretch- 
ing of  the  back  of  the  bend  and  the  upsetting  of  the  inner  side  of  the 
pipe.  For  this  reason  it  is  usually  better  to  bend  the  pipe  toward  its 
coldest  side  (having  the  cold  side  uppermost  in  the  vise),  to  prevent 
wrinkling  the  inside  of  the  bend. 

All  pipe  up  to  and  including  i^-inch  maybe  bent  in  this  way. 
Two-inch  is  more  difficult  when  the  radius  is  short,  on  account  of  the 
thinness  of  the  pipe  compared  with  its  diameter.  Two  and  one-half 
inch  pipe  bends  better  than  two-inch,  the  radius  being  proportional  to 
the  diameter  of  the  pipe.  All  pipes  below  ij^-inch  should  bend 
properly  to  a  quarter  turn  or  less,  with  a  radius  equal  to  twice  their 
diameters. 


CUTTING    LARGE    NIPPLES. 

Q.  MY  way  of  cutting  4-inch  close  nipples,  or  any  other  size,  is  to 
have  a  long  thread  on  a  piece  of  pipe.  I  back  the  coupling  of  the  long 
thread  sufficiently  to  let  my  short  nipple  go  far  enough  not  to  rupture 
the  thread,  then  I  run  the  coupling  on  my  long  thread — that  is,  when  I 
remove  my  die  ;  then  I  unscrew  the  coupling  from  the  long  thread 
until  the  ends  are  separated,  when  I  generally  remove  the  nipple  with 
my  hand. 

A.  Your  method  is  the  ordinary  one  of  removing  a  short  or  close 
nipple  from  a  nipple-chuck.  It  is  assumed  that  it  is  an  easier  task  to 
remove  one  or  two  4-inch  nipples  from  an  ordinary  coupling  and 
short  piece  than  to  make  a  4-inch  thread  six  inches  long  on  the  piece, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  a  nipple-holder  or  chuck. 


CUTTING  VARIOUS  SIZES  OF    THREADS   WITH  A 
SOLID    DIE. 

Q.  I  WORK  in  a  gas-fitting  shop  and  help  a  fitter.  The  dies  we  use 
are  the  ordinary  solid  ones  and  cannot  be  made  smaller  or  larger. 
Now  and  then  it  happens  that  the  fittings  are  a  little  too  small  for  the 


114  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

threads  which  we  cut  on  the  pipe,  but  the  fitter  has  a  way  of  making  the 
thread  on  the  pipe  small  also,  so  as  to  fit  the  fittings.  He  always  sends 
the  boys  out  while  he  is  doing  it,  as  he  says  it  is  a  "  trick  of  the  trade," 
and  should  not  be  shown  to  any  boy  not  an  apprentice.  He  is  an  old- 
countryman,  and  had  to  serve  an  apprenticeship  himself,  he  says.  I 
told  him  I  would  find  out,  and  take  the  liberty  to  ask  you. 

A.  He  probably  uses  a  piece  of  sheet-metal — tin,  sheet-iron,  brass, 
or  copper  will  do— placing  it  over  the  cutting-edges  of  the  die  at  one 
side  only.  However,  if  this  is  not  his  way,  such  a  method  can  be  used 
for  the  same  purpose,  and  we  think  it  is  no  secret  in  old-fashioned 
machine-shops,  at  least  when  applied  to  a  tap,  for  a  hole  may  be  made 

larger  than  its  tap  by 
the  same  process. 

Let  0,  Figure  44, 
be  a  common  solid  die 
and  b  a  pipe  which  has 
been  already  threaded 
by  it.  Then  take  a 
piece  of  thin  soft  metal 
c  and  place  it  over  one 
cutting-edge  of  the  die, 
one  end  abutting  at  d. 
Force  the  die  on  again 
in  the  usual  manner. 
The  result  is  that  the 
cutting-edge  of  the  die 

e    is    drawn    into    the 
FIGURE  44. 

pipe   the   thickness   of 

the  slip  of  metal — "  chasing  "  as  it  were  a  thread  already  cut  to  a 
smaller  size  in  diameter.  The  thickness  of  the  slip  determines  the 
amonnt  of  reduction. 

In  the  same  way  when  a  hole  is  made  with  a  tap,  and  if  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  it  a  little  larger,  run  a  strip"  of  copper  or  tin  down  one  side 
of  the  tap.  The  points  of  the  cutting-edge  will  stick  in  it  and  carry  it 
around  the  hole,  forcing  the  cutters  of  the  opposite  side  into  the  work. 


CUTTING    NIPPLES   AND    BENDING    PIPES.  115 

In  the  answer  preceding,  in  our  number  of  November  8,  1883,  we 
omitted  the  cut,  and  though  the  reply  is  clear  enough  to  a  technical 
reader,  fearing  the  younger  members  of  the  workshop  may  not  be  suffi- 
ciently benefited  by  it,  we  give  it  in  this  issue.  The  thin  piece  of  metal 
c,  or  it  may  be  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  tin  plate,  is  set  in  the  die 
after  it  has  already  cut  a  thread  on  the  pipe.  The  die  is  then  again 
forced  on  the  pipe,  and  as  the  widest  side  of  the  die  is  toward  the 
point  or  narrowest  part  of  the  pipe-thread,  it  readily  catches.  The 
result  is  then  the  deepening  of  the  threads  by  the  cutting-edge  e,  which 
is  drawn  in  the  direction  of  the  centre  of  the  pipe.  The  operation  may 
be  repeated  for  a  further  reduction  of  the  thread  by  adding  more  strips. 
A  change  of  taper  of  the  thread  (not  accurate)  may  be  obtained  by  the 
same  method  by  running  the  die  on  only  part  way. 


RAISING   WATER   AUTOMATICALLY. 


CONTRIVANCE  FOR  RAISING  WATER  IN  HIGH  BUILDINGS. 

MR.  G.  STUMPF,  a  civil  engineer  in  Berlin,  has  recently  devised  and 
advocated  a  contrivance  for  raising  water  into  the  upper  parts  of  high 
buildings,  to  be  used  principally  for 
fire  purposes,  but  serving  also  other 
uses  in  the  upper  stories.  Figure  45 
illustrates  the  apparatus.  The  water  is 
admitted  from  the  street-main  into  the 
pipe  K.  By  opening  the  stop  H  the 
water  rises  through  the  pipe  F  into 
the  tank  A  (which  is  air-tight)  until  it 


FIGURE  45. 


FIGURE  46. 


is  filled,  which  fact  is  indicated  by  the  overflow-pipe  G  ;  thereupon  the 
stop  H  is  closed  and  the  stop  I  opened.  The  water  from  the  main 
enters  the  tank  L,  which  is  also  air-tight,  and  in  doing  so  compresses 


RAISING    WATER    AUTOMATICALLY. 


117 


the  air  and  forces  it  through  the  pipe  B  into  the  tank  A.  The  water 
in  the  latter  is,  therefore,  under  the  same  pressure  as  the  water  in  the 
tank  L.  From  A  the  water  is  then  permitted,  by  opening  the  stop  D,  to 
enter  the  pipe  E  and  to  flow  out  at  C  under  a  very  much  greater  pres- 
sure, and  consequently  rises  to  a  much  greater  elevation  than 
if  there  was  a  direct  connection  with  the  street-main.  Of  course 
the  flow  of  water  from 
C  continues  only  until 
the  tank  A  is  emptied, 
and  its  refilling  must 
be  attended  to  as  de- 
scribed at  first. 

The  quantity  of 
water  at  once  avail- 
able for  fire  or  other 
purposes  is,  therefore, 
dependent  on  the  size 
of  the  tanks  A  and  L. 

There  are  in- 
stances, particularly 
in  the  country,  where 
a  good  deal  of  water 
may  be  had,  but  with 
very  little  pressure. 
In  this  case  an  appara- 
tus like  Figure  46  may 
be  used.  The  air- 
tight tank  D  is  filled 
from  the  supply-pipe  FIGURE  47. 

K  until  the  water  runs 

out  through  the  waste  E.  The  stops  in  the  latter  and  the  stops  H 
and  C  are  then  closed  and  the  stop  I  opened.  The  water  from  the 
supply-pipe  then  runs  into  the  air-tight  tank  L,  compresses  the  air 
which  is  forced  through  the  pipe  F  into  the  tank  D,  and  raises  the 
water  contained  therein  through  the  pipe  B  into  the  tank  A  situated 


Il8  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

at  the  top  of  the  house,  from  which  the  supply  is  then  taken  to  the 
various  parts  of  the  building.  The  tank  D  upon  being  emptied  in  this 
manner  must  be  filled  as  before. 

A  further  application  of  this  principle  is  shown  in  Figure  47.  The 
water  from  the  main  enters  through  the  pipe  D  and  fills  the  air-tight 
tank  A,  compressing  the  air  which  is  forced  through  the  pipe  E  into 
the  air-tight  tank  M  in  the  cellar,  and  forcing  whatever  water  or  sew- 
age which  may  have  collected  therein  from  the  cellar  into  the  pipe  L, 
which  delivers  into  the  sewer,  which  in  this  case  is  supposed  to  be 
higher  than  the  cellar-floor.  Back-flows  from  the  sewer  is  prevented 
by  a  flap-trap,  R.  The  tank  B,  which  is  not  air-tight,  is  filled  from  the 
tank  A  in  a  manner  readily  noticed,  and  from  this  the  various  cisterns 
and  hydrants  in  the  house  are  supplied. 

There  is  no  question  that  Mr.  Stumpf 's  contrivance  would  be  useful 
under  certain  conditions.  A  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is 
necessary  to  see  to  the  filling  of  the  upper  tank  whenever  it  becomes 
empty,  as  no  automatic  arrangement  for  doing  it  is  given. 


APPARATUS    FOR    RAISING    WATER. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  writes  :  "  I  see  cuts  and  explanation  of  a  '  con- 
trivance for  raising  water  in  high  buildings/  said  to  be  devised  by  Mr. 
G.  Stumpf,  of  Berlin.  The  device  as  shown  in  the  cuts  is  not  complete. 
I  see  nothing  by  which  the  tank  L  can  be  emptied,  and  this  tank  must 
necessarily  be  emptied  whenever  it  gets  full,  as  you  or  any  intelligent 
reader  can  see.  Inclosed  you  will  find  the  sketch  of  an  apparatus 
which  I  invented  three  or  four  years  ago,  which  is  automatic  in  its 
action.  (See  Figure  48.)  It  will  work  with  the  smallest  possible  quan- 
tity of  water. 

"  The  sketch  explains  itself.  A  constant  stream  of  water  runs  into 
the  chamber  A.  Suppose  both  tanks  are  empty,  and  the  water  turned 
on.  The  water  runs  through  the  supply  in  bottom  of  chamber  A  to  top 
tank  through  the  check-valve  until  the  water  rises  to  level  of  overflow. 
Immediately  on  its  doing  so  the  check-valve  closes.  The  overflow  sup- 
plies bottom  tank,  which,  when  filling,  compresses  the  air  above  the 


RAISING    WATER   AUTOMATICALLY.  lip 

water.  The  compressed  air  passes  up  through  the  air-pipe  into  the  top 
tank,  pressing  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  tank,  and  forcing  the 
water  up  through  the  outlet  When  the  lower  tank  is  full  the  float  and 


weight  open  a  valve  in  the  bottom,  and  allows  it  to  empty.  While  it  is 
emptying  the  top  tank  is  filling  up  again.  With  this  apparatus  water  can 
be  raised  any  height,  all  that  is  necessary  being  to  multiply  the  tanks 
above  one  another  and  connect  the  air-pipe  to  each." 


MOISTURE    ON   WALLS,    ETC. 


THE    CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    MOISTURE   ON 
WALLS. 

Q.  I  HAVE  a  problem  that  I  would  like  solved.  We  have  a  country 
house  on  the  Mississippi  bluffs.  The  house  is  built  of  rough  stone, 
the  foundation-walls  being  three  feet  thick  and  the  height  of  the  base- 
ment ten  feet.  Above  this  the  walls  have  a  thickness  of  two  and  a  half 
feet.  The  plaster  was  put  on  the  stone  without  any  lathing,  and  the 
consequence  is  that  the  house  is  so  damp  that  water  sometimes  runs 
down  the  wall-paper  in  small  streams.  By  what  system  can  we  get  rid 
of  that  dampness,  which  is,  I  am  sure,  as  pernicious  to  health  as  to 
comfort  ? 

It  would  be  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  have  the  whole  house 
plastered,  and  I  suppose  there  must  be  some  easier  way  to  remedy 
such  a  defect.  If  you  will  advise  us  you  will  greatly  oblige. 

A.  The  dampness  complained  of  is  caused  by  the  condensation  of 
vapor  from  the  air  upon  the  surface  of  the  walls,  just  as  it  is  condensed 
upon  the  outside  of  a  tumbler  when  filled  with  ice-water  in  warm 
weather.  It  occurs  when  the  air  is  well  charged  with  moisture,  as  it 
generally  is  during  summer  weather,  and  at  such  times  as  the  house- 
walls  happen  to  be  cooler  than  the  air.  Such  conditions  often  exist  in 
our  climate  when  a  warm  day  follows  a  cool  one.  Air  is  capable  of 
sustaining  watery  vapor  in  an  invisible  form  in  quantities  varying 
directly  with  its  temperature.  The  quantity  so  taken  up  and  held  is 
nearly  doubled  with  every  increase  of  20°  Fah.,  provided  water  is 
exposed  to  such  air  for  evaporation.  Thus,  air  at  60°  Fah.,  if  water 
or  moist  surface  had  been  exposed  to  it,  contains  5.77  grains  of  water 
per  cubic  foot,  while  air  at  80°  under  like  conditions  contains  10.98 
grains  per  cubic  foot,  or  5.21  grains  additional.  If  air  in  the  last 
condition  be  chilled  20°  by  contact  with  any  cool  substance,  this  5.21 


MOISTURE    ON    WALLS,    ETC.  121 

grains  of  water  per  cubic  foot  of  air  is  at  once  deposited  on  such  cool 
surface  in  the  form  of  dew.  If  the  air  be  heated  by  fires  within  the 
house  and  no  water  exposed  to  it,  then  its  subsequent  cooling,  when 
brought  in  contact  with  the  cooler  walls,  produces  no  condensation. 
But  if  after  the  walls  have  been  cooled  by  a  northerly  wind  for  a  few 
days  we  have  a  warm  wind  from  the  south  fully  supplied  with  moisture, 
as  is  often  the  case  in  summer,  the  air  is  chilled  at  once  below  the  dew 
point  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  cooler  walls,  and  condensation 
or  deposit  of  water  ensues  upon  their  surfaces. 

There  are  two  ways  to  remedy  the  trouble  :  First,  by  building  a 
fire  in  the  house,  by  which  the  walls  may  be  artificially  warmed,  which, 
though  efficient,  may  not  be  conducive  to  comfort  in  summer  ;  second, 
by  covering  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  walls  of  the  house  with  a  lining 
which  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat.  This  will  prevent  the  rapid  transfer 
of  heat  from  the  air  to  the  walls,  which  will  become  more  slowly  heated 
from  the  outside.  Many  stone  buildings  in  the  Old  World  are  lined  with 
tapestry  hangings,  which  are  tolerably  successful  in  checking  condensa- 
tion, but  these  accumulate  dust  and  insects  to  a  degree  that  renders 
them  disagreeable.  Modern  practice  has  discarded  them  in  favor  of  a 
confined  air-chamber  between  the  wall  and  the  plastering  ;  though  we 
understand  the  mistaken  practice  that  you  describe  is  still  quite  common 
in  the  Western  States.  For  this  purpose  the  plastering  is  spread  upon 
laths  instead  of  directly  on  the  walls  ;  and  in  order  to  secure  a  space 
of  one  or  two  inches  between  the  back  of  the  lathing  and  the  walls,  a 
furring  or  strip  of  board  is  attached  to  the  wall  at  such  intervals  as  to 
give  proper  nailings  for  the  laths.  For  stone  walls  these  furrings  should 
be  not  less  than  two  inches  in  thickness. 

Such  air-spaces  are  now  almost  universal  in  our  brick  and  stone 
buildings  in  the  East.  They  are  sometimes,  however,  helps  to  the  rapid 
spread  of  fire,  when  no  care  is  taken  to  interrupt  them  at  the  several 
floors.  The  proper  way  is  to  fill  this  space  with  mortar  or  brick-work 
at  every  floor,  several  inches  in  thickness,  so  as  to  effectually  cut  off  all 
communication  from  one  story  to  another  through  such  air-spaces.  If 
the  partitions  are  made  of  brick  or  stone  they  should  be  furred  and 
plastered  in  the  same  way.  Wooden  sheathing  or  panel-work  is  as 


122  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

good  as  plaster,  if  furred  off  two  inches  from  the  wall,  but  plaster  is 
generally  used  on  account  of  its  cheapness. 

Walls  are  sometimes  built  with  an  air-space  within  them,  but  if 
lined  with  brick  or  stone  inside  this  space,  the  condensation  will  still 
occur  when  the  air  is  being  cooled  until  that  part  of  the  wall  inside  the 
air-space  has  been  warmed  up  to  the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the 
air. 

The  thicker  the  walls  of  a  house  happen  to  be  the  longer  time  does 
it  take  to  warm  them  up,  so  that  thick  walls,  such  as  you  describe,  are 
more  troublesome  in  condensing  moisture  than  thin  ones  of  brick,  the 
latter  being  more  readily  warmed. 


EFFECT    OF    MOISTURE    ON    SENSIBLE    TEMPERATURE. 

Q.  WHAT  will  be  the  result  of  running  a  heating  apparatus,  as 
regards  the  effect  of  the  heat,  with  and  without  evaporation  ?  In  other 
words,  would  a  room  heated  to  60°  Fah.  feel  the  warmer  to  its  occu- 
pants if  the  air  were  dry  or  if  it  were  moistened  with  watery  vapor 
from  evaporations?  I  do  not  know  whether  I  have  made  my  meaning 
plain,  but  my  question  arises  from  having  noticed  in  summer  time  that 
on  a  moist  day,  or  what  is  called  "  muggy  "  weather,  the  heat  is  felt 
more  than  it  is  on  a  dry  day  with  a  higher  temperature  as  shown  on  the 
thermometer. 

A.  The  presence  of  moisture  in  the  air  has  a  strong  influence  on 
bodily  sensations  as  regards  temperature.  In  an  atmosphere  nearly 
saturated  with  moisture,  as  in  the  west  and  south  of  England,  Ireland, 
or  Normandy,  60°  Fah.  is  sensibly  as  warm  as  75°  Fah.  would  be  in 
Canada  or  Minnesota,  where  the  air  is  comparatively  dry. 

Were  it  possible,  therefore,  to  maintain  in  a  room  artificially 
warmed  to  60°  Fah.  a  nearly  saturated  condition  of  the  air  as  regards 
moisture,  such  a  room  would  be  as  comfortable  as  one  heated  to  70° 
Fah.  which  was  nearly  free  from  moisture.  But  with  the  external  air 
at  the  freezing  point  in  this  country  it  is  practically  impossible  to  supply 
the  vapor  required  to  maintain  such  moisture  ;  and  it  would  take  more 


MOISTURE    ON    WALLS,    ETC.  123 

fuel  to  vaporize  the  water  than  it  would  to  heat  the  room.  The  only 
way  to  effect  it  would  be  to  have  a  room  absolutely  air-tight  and  with- 
out ventilation  ;  5.46  grains  of  water  to  each  cubic  foot  of  air  would 
be  required  ;  4.02  grains  of  this  must  be  evaporated  by  heat,  requiring 
0.612  units  of  heat,  while  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  heat  a  cubic 
foot  of  air  from  32°  to  68°  is  0.635  units,  or  very  little  more  than  that 
required  to  effect  the  evaporation. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


HEATING    WATER    IN    LARGE    TANKS. 

Q.  A  CIRCULAR  tank  with  flaring  sides,  measuring  4'  3"  on  bottom, 
3'  7"  on  top,  and  3'  8"  perpendicular  height,  is  used  here  by  laundry 

for  washing  purposes. 
It  stands  on  roof  and 
is  housed  in.  It  is 
supplied  by  city  water, 
which  runs  in  over  top, 
connected  with  ball 
and  cock.  At  present 
it  is  heated  by  steam. 
I  wish  to  do  away  with 
steam  and  heat  by 
stove  and  coil,  or  some 
other  hot-water  appa- 
ratus. From  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tank  to  the 
floor  directly  beneath 
upon  which  the  stove 
will  stand  the  distance 
is  13'  6".  What  or 
how  much  heating- 
surface  in  the  coil  is 
needed  to  heat  this 
tank  full  twice  a  day 
to  200°  F.  ? 

A.  Your  tank  will 
FIGURE  49.  hold      about     2,800 

pounds  of  water,  which, 

if  warmed  from  40°  to  200°  F.  twice  in  ten  hours,  will  require  896,000 
heat  units,  or  89,600  heat  units  per  hour — equivalent  to  the  evaporation 
of  about  \Yz  cubic  feet  of  water  per  hour.  A  green-house  boiler  of 
from  25  to  30  square  feet  of  surface  will  do.  Connect  it  as  shown  in 
the  sketch,  Figure  49. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


J..O..M 


J..O..Q 


l.iill 


HEATING    WATER    FOR   LARGE    INSTITUTIONS. 

Q.  IN  a  public  institution  using  a  large  quantity  of  hot  water  it  is 
proposed  to  have  a  hot  tank  in  the  garret,  and  to  use  for  heating  the 
water  in  this  tank  the  steam-boiler  which  heats  the  building  with  steam, 
in  the  winter,  a  coil  being 
placed  in  the  tank.  In 
summer  it  is  proposed  to 
heat  the  tank  by  a  small 
auxiliary  furnace  in  the 
garret.  Will  you  please 
give  me  some  directions 
about  the  arrangements 
common  in  such  cases  ? 
Also  whether,  as  fixtures 
will  be  connected  with  a 
pipe  descending  from  this 
tank,  it  will  not  be  impos- 
sible to  obtain  hot  water 
until  the  cold  water  which 
gathers  in  the  pipe  by  its 
cooling  has  been  drawn  out, 
for  I  suppose  you  cannot 
get  a  circulation  in  a  case 
like  this. 

On  this  account  I  have 
recommended  to  the  parties 
that  they  had  better  heat 
their  water  in  a  closed  tank 
in  the  basement,  letting  it 
rise  to  the  reservoir  in  the 
top,  and  then  return  to  the 
closed  tank,  thus  always 
having  a  circulation. 


JL 


H  H  a  a 


FIGURE  50. 


A.  The  sketch  (Figure 
50)  shows  how   we   would 

do  this  in  New  York,  especially  in  a  high  building.  The  water  may  be 
pumped  to  the  cold  tank,  or  should  the  water- works  pressure  be  great 
enough,  it  may  be  regulated  by  a  ball-cock.  From  thence  it  will  run 
to  the  hot  tank,  and  will  level  up  again  to  the  same  height  in  the 


126 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


distributing  and  circulating  pipes  a  and  b.  The  small  pipe  over  the 
top  of  cold  tank  is  an  air-vent.  With  this  arrangement  the  water  will 
always  be  warm  at  the  faucet. 

The  coil  within  the  lower  and  closed  tank  may  be  i-inch  pipe  for 
live  steam  or  large  pipe  for  exhaust  steam.     Brass  pipe  is  generally 


FIGURE  51. 

used.  With  the  hot  tank  in  the  top  of  the  house  the  water  will  not 
circulate  and  be  warm.  The  result  will  be  as  you  state. 

You  also  say  it  is  proposed  to  take  steam  from  the  heating-pipes 
to  warm  this  tank.  There  are  heating  systems  you  might  tap  in  this 
way  and  not  spoil  the  circulation,  but  on  general  principles  it  is  wrong. 

Figure  51  shows  the  method  of  making  hot  water  for  distribution 
within  the  Hotel  Warren  in  Boston.  A  Berryman  heater  of  special 


MISCELLANEOUS.  127 

construction  is  used,  and  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  elevator  pumping- 
service  is  utilized.  The  pipe  a  leads  directly  from  the  pumping-engine. 
When  the  valve  *  is  closed  and  the  valves  j  ar.d  k  open,  the  passage  of 
the  exhaust  steam  is  through  the  pipe  a  to  the  pipe  a',  thence  through 
the  tubes  of  the  heater,  the  uncondensed  part  passing  off  by  the  pipe 
a",  thence  entering  the  pipe  a  again  beyond  the  valve  /,  and  either 
passing  to  the  roof  in  summer  time  or  into  the  heating-coils  in  winter, 
by  the  resistance  of  the  back-pressure  valve  m,  which  is  then  loaded  to 
exceed  the  pressure  to  be  carried  in  the  house-heating  apparatus.  The 
pipe  b  is  for  the  admission  of  high-pressure  steam  from  the  boilers, 
should  the  exhaust  be  not  in  use.  The  valves  /  and  k  are  then  closed 
and  the  water  of  condensation  is  taken  care  of  by  the  trap  c.  The  pipe 
f  is  a  sediment-pipe  for  the  flushing  out  of  the  water-chamber  at  the 
base  of  the  circulating-tubes  within  the  heater.  The  pipe  C  supplies 
the  heater  with  cold  water,  and  the  pipes  d  and  d  are  the  distributing. 
The  circulating-pipes  return  to  the  heater  parallel  to  the  pipes  d  and 
enter  near  the  bottom. 


QUESTIONS    RELATING   TO   WATER-TANKS. 

Q.  How  MUCH  water  will  a  tank  hold  if  it  is  45  feet  long  by  27 
feet  wide,  6  feet  6  inches  deep  at  one  end,  with  a  regular  incline  to  a 
depth  of  three  feet  at  the  other  end  ?  How  large  a  pipe  will  it  require 
to  let  in  water  enough  to  fill  it  in  five  hours,  under  a  constant  head  or 
pressure  of  40  pounds  per  inch  ?  How  much  water  at  a  temperature 
of  190°  Fah.  will  be  required  to  raise  the  contents  of  the  tank  to  70° 
Fah.  from  36°  Fah.?  What  is  the  best  and  most  economical  means  of 
heating  and  keeping  water  in  the  tank  at  a  temperature  of  70°  Fah., 
steam  not  being  available  ? 

A.  The  tank  will  contain  5,163  cubic  feet,  or  38,619  U.  S.  gallons. 
This  is  equivalent  to  admitting  129  U.  S.  gallons  per  minute,  and  this 
quantity  will  pass  through  a  short  2^ -inch  pipe  at  the  pressure  you 
state. 

If  your  pipe  has  short  turns,  and  is  of  any  considerable  length  of 
ordinary  pipe  and  fittings,  make  it  three  inches  in  diameter,  with 
straight-way  valves. 


128  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

Thirty  thousand  gallons  of  water  warmed  from  36°  to  70°  will  cool 
8,500  gallons  from  190°  to  70°,  the  resulting  mixture  having  a  temper- 
ature of  70°  Fah. 

To  keep  the  water  hot  under  such  conditions,  use  an  ordinary 
house-heating  hot-water  boiler,  and  connect  it  so  the  water  can  circu- 
late to  the  tank — the  greater  the  difference  in  level  between  the  boiler 
and  the  tank  producing  the  quicker  circulation.  A  boiler  of  500  square 
feet  of  heating -surf ace,  with  6-inch  connections,  will  heat  the  tank  in 
about  one  hour 


FAULTY  ELEVATOR-PUMP  CONNECTIONS. 

WE  would  direct  the  attention  of  readers  to  a  method  of  pump-con- 
nections sometimes  resorted  to  by  steam-fitters  in  their  endeavors  to 
remove  water  from  the  cylinders  of  elevator-pumps,  a  sketch  of  which 
has  been  furnished  by  a  correspondent.  (See  Figure  52.) 

It  is  well  known  to  the  engineer  that  elevator-pumps  are  regulated 
to  start  and  stop  automatically,  as  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  tanks 
requires.  When  the  times  the  pump  is  not  running  the  water  of  con- 
densation accumulates  in  the  steam-pipe  back  of  the  "  chronometer- 
valve."  When  the  pump  starts  again  it  is  desirable  to  remove  this  water 
as  quickly  as  possible  and  to  do  it  automatically,  to  which  end  a  "  pot  " 
steam-trap  is  generally  used.  Some  engineers  attach  their  traps  to  the 
steam-pipe  close  to  the  steam-chest,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  so  as 
to  receive  the  water  before  it  goes  into  the  cylinders,  but  a  few,  with  the 
hope  of  removing  any  water  that  is  condensed  in  the  cylinders,  connect 
the  trap  in  the  manner  shown  by  the  heavy  lines  in  the  sketch. 

To  have  the  trap  at  all  operative  with  this  method,  the  cylinder- 
cocks  c  c  c  have  to  be  left  open,  but  as  the  trap  does  not  open  directly 
to  atmosphere  except  for  a  few  seconds,  at  intervals  of  as  many  min- 
utes, it  has  the  same  pressure  in  it  as  there  is  in  the  steam-pipe  or  in 
the  ends  of  the  cylinders  which  at  the  moment  are  taking  steam.  The 
result  of  this  is  to  pass  steam  from  the  ends  of  the  cylinders  which  are 
taking  steam  to  the  ends  which  are  not  taking  steam,  so  either  wasting 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


J29 


it  to  atmosphere  through  the  exhaust-pipe  or  causing  a  back-pressure 
on  the  pistons.  But  this  action  goes  further.  The  water  which  passes 
out  through  a  cock  c  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder  goes  largely  in  the 
direction  of  least  resistance,  and  flies  into  the  other  end  of  the  same 
cylinder  through  the  pipe  /,  or  back  to  the  other  cylinder  through  the 
pipe/,  making  abortive  the  very  object  for  which  the  trap  was  originally 
applied,  wasting  steam  and  causing  the  pump  to  pound. 

If  traps  must  be  placed  on  cylinders,  one  should  be  used  at  each 
end  of  each  cylinder ;  but  we  think  that  a  trap  on  the  steam-pipe,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  with  the  pipe  d  connected  with  the  pipe/ 
outside  the  trap,  or  to 
some  other  pipe  in 
w.hich  there  is  no  pres- 
sure, is  all  -that  is 
required.  This  allows 
the  trap  to  drain  the 
steam-pipe  of  water 
automatically,  and 
gives  the  engineer  the 
opportunity  of  drain- 
ing the  cylinders  by 
the  cocks  c,  which  he 
can  regulate  by  hand 
to  a  fine  adjustment. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  for  the  benefit  of  some  that  the  cocks  c 
cannot  be  finely  adjusted  with  the  trap  attached,  as  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  full  pressure  of  steam  in  the  traps  to  discharge  it.  Otherwise 
it  would  be  inoperative  and  useless. 


FIGURE  52. 


A  correspondent  writes  us  in  reference  to  the  above  subject : 
"Would  it  not  be  well  to  let  the  steam-trap  remain  as  it  happened  to  be 
in  the  case  of  the  faulty  connection,  and  insert  swinging  cluck- valves 
in  the  pipes  c  c  c  c  ?  I  have  been  doing  that  for  some  time  now,  and 
get  better  results  than  when  I  attached  the  trap  to  the  steam-pipe  or 
steam-chest." 


130  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

BOOKS  ON  HEATING  SEVERAL  BUILDINGS  FROM  ONE 
SOURCE. 

Q.  Is  THERE  any  book  on  the  heating  of  different  buildings  from 
one  central  station  ?  Or  has  anything  been  published  in  the  Sanitary 
Engineer  or  elsewhere  on  this  subject  ? 

A.  This  subject  is  not  fully  treated  of  in  any  work  that  we  are 
aware  of.  In  chapter  XIX.  of  "  Baldwin's  Steam-Heating  for  Buildings  " 
allusion  is  made  to  this  subject  in  connection  with  "  scattered  buildings 
heated  from  one  source."  If  it  is  proposed  to  deal  with  any  special 
case,  our  advice  would  be  to  employ  an  expert  either  to  improve  a  defec- 
tive system  or  to  design  a  new  one,  the  cost  of  his  services  being  nearly 
always  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  reduced  first  cost,  not  to 
consider  the  cost  of  maintenance  as  between  a  defective  apparatus  and 
a  properly  constructed  one. 


COAL-TAR  COATING  FOR  WATER-PIPES. 

Q.  WE  should  like  your  opinion  as  to  the  benefits  of  coal-tarring 
water-service  pipes  inside. 

A.  Some  protection  against  corrosion  is  necessary  for  any  iron 
pipe  used  for  water-supply.  Plain  iron,  whether  cast  or  wrought,  is 
liable  to  become  incrusted,  and  to  both  rust  out  and  become  obstructed. 
Dipping  the  pipe  when  heated  in  a  hot  bath  of  coal-tar  (known  as  Dr. 
Angus  Smith's  process)  is  effective  in  preventing  such  corrosion  to  a 
very  great  extent. 

From  statistics  collected  by  a  committee  of  the  New  England 
Water- Works  Association,  and  published  in  its  proceedings  for  1884,  it 
.appears  that  pipe  of  this  kind  has  been  used  for  a  number  of  years  for 
service-pipes  from  main  to  house,  with  very  satisfactory  results  in 
Lowell,  North  Adams,  Quincy,  and  Springfield,  Mass.,  Pawtucket,  R.  I., 
and  Wilmington,  N.  C. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  13! 

In  Haverhill,  Mass.,  it  has  not  given  satisfaction  ;  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  it  is  stated  to  give  a  bad  taste  to  the  water  for  some  time  ;  and 
in  Newton,  Mass.,  it  is  said  to  last  eight  to  twelve  years. 

For  cast-iron  main-pipes,  the  coal-tar  coating  which  was  first  intro- 
duced into  this  country  by  Mr.  Kirkwood  on  the  Brooklyn  Water- 
Works  in  1857  is  used  universally  with  very  satisfactory  results. 


FILTERS  FOR  FEEDERS  OF  HOUSE-BOILERS—OTHER 
MEANS  OF  CLARIFYING  THE  WATER. 

Q.  I  SEND  you  herewith  a  rude  sketch  (Figure  53)  of  proposed 
application  of  the  Crocker  or  the  Grant  filter,  globular,  to  clean  the 
feed-water  supplied  through  an  automatic  feeder  to  the  boiler  I  use  in 
heating  my  house.  The  boiler  is  six  feet  by  two  and  a  half,  and  of 
steel.  Please  submit  to  best  authority. 
Can  you  suggest  any  improvement  on  the 
mode  employed,  or  do  you  see  any  diffi- 
culty ?  The  good  filtration  of  water  is 
a  great  desideratum.  Would  a  filter 
lessen  the  rapidity  and  quantity  of  the 
pipe-delivery  of  water  much  ?  The  filters 
I  named  are  packed  with  animal  char- 
coal and  a  punctured  or  wire  strainer. 

A.  i.  Filters  of  small  capacity  are 
of  very  little  use  except  to  arrest  fish  or 
large  particles,  and  must  be  cleaned  often. 

2.  When  the  gravel,  charcoal,  wire, 
or  whatever  else  a  filter  may  be  filled  with, 
becomes  clogged  with  the  particles 
arrested,  it  will  retard  the  flow  of  water. 

Settling  the  water  in  an  iron  holder 
or  reservoir  (a  kitchen-boiler  will  do) 
having  the  inlet  and  outlet  both  in  the 
top  is  a  good  method  where  a  compara- 
tively small  quantity  of  water  is  to  be  used,  as  with  an  automatic 
feeder  for  house-boiler. 


FIGURE  53. 


t 

132  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

TESTING    GAS-PIPES    FOR   LEAKS    AND    MAKING    TIGHT 
JOINTS. 

Q.  I  WOULD  like  to  inquire  the  best  way  to  test  gas-pipes  in  a 
building  for  leaks.  Also,  how  to  make  perfectly  tight  joints  in  said 
gas-pipes. 

A.  If  the  house  is  in  progress  of  construction,  see  that  all  the  out- 
lets are  carefully  closed  with  caps,  and  that  the  foot  of  the  rising  line 
is  stopped.  Then  at  any  convenient  side-light  attach  the  ordinary  gas- 
fitters'  pump,  which  is  simply  an  air-pump.  To  the  same  side-liglit,  or 
an  adjacent  one,  attach  the  mercury-column  gauge  used  by  gas-fitters 
with  a  column  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  in  length.  Great  care  must 
be  now  taken  to  prove  that  there  are  no  leaks  in  the  gauge  or  its  con- 
nections or  cock,  and  in  the  pump  and  hose  connection,  and  a  good 
cock  should  be  used  between  the  permanent  gas-pipe  and  any  tempo- 
rary connections  to  pump,  so  that  it  may  be  closed  immediately  the 
pumping  stops,  to  prevent  back-leakage  of  air  through  the  pump-valves 
or  hose-joints. 

When  all  is  complete,  pump  the  pipe  system  in  the  house  full  of 
air  until  the  mercury  rises  at  least  twelve  inches.  Then  close  the 
intermediate  cock  before  mentioned,  and  should  the  mercury  column 
be  found  to  "  stand  "  for  five  minutes,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that 
the  pipes  are  sufficiently  air  and  gas  tight  for  any  pressure  they  can 
afterward  be  subjected  to.  But  as  it  is  the  rule  in  the  most  carefully  done 
gas-pipe  work  to  find  the  mercury  will  not  "  stand,"  as  there  will  be 
leaks  that  would  escape  the  most  careful  workman,  it  is  necessary  then 
to  locate  them. 

Should  there  prove  to  be  a  very  large  leak,  it  will  be  apparent  at 
once,  as  it  will  be  impossible  to  get  a  pressure  worth  considering,  the 
mercury  simply  bobbing  up  and  down  in  the  tube. 

It  may  be  an  outlet  that  has  been  neglected  to  be  closed,  or  it  may 
be  a  long  split  in  the  pipe.  If  the  former,  and  very  close  to  the  pump, 
the  mercury  will  not  respond  ;  but  should  it  be  far  away,  with  consid- 
erable length  of  pipe  to  cause  resistance,  the  mercury  will  jump  and 
return  as  suddenly.  But  should  there  be  a  split  pipe  or  an  aggregation 


MISCELLANEOUS.  133 

of  small  leaks,  the  mercury  will  run  back  steadily,  though  slower  than 
it  rises,  between  the  strokes  of  the  pump.  Should  it  rise  well  in  the 
glass  and  sink  at  the  rate  of  about  one  inch  in  five  seconds,  small  leaks 
only  in  fittings  or  joints  may  then  be  anticipated.  Of  course,  there  are 
exceptions  to  these  rules,  which  are  only  for  general  guidance. 

To  locate  a  leak,  then,  that  cannot  be  heard  blowing,  strong  soap- 
water  applied  with  a  brush  or  sponge  may  be  used.  The  liquid  is 
rubbed  over  suspected  joints  or  fittings  and  air-bubbles  are  blown  by 
the  escaping  air. 

Sometimes  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  ether  in  the  pipes  in  loca- 
ting leaks,  if  the  pipes  are  under  floors  or  in  partitions.  The  ether  is 
put  into  a  bend  of  the  hose  or  into  a  cup  attached  to  the  pipe  and 
blown  into  the  pipes  with  the  air.  By  following  the  lines  of  the  pipes 
the  approximate  position  of  a  leak  may  then  be  determined  by  the  odor 
of  escaping  ether. 

In  very  large  work  it  is  well  to  prove  a  floor  at  a  time,  and  when 
all  are  done,  connect  them  with  the  riser  and  prove  as  a  whole. 

The  best  thing  for  making  pipes  tight  for  coal-gas  is  gas-fitters' 
cement,  which  is  a  common  grade  of  sealing-wax.  The  threads  of  the 
pipes  should  be  immersed  in  it  when  warm  and  let  drain,  and  the  fittings 
also  are  sometimes  so  treated.  To  put  the  pipes  and  fittings  together 
both  are  warmed  and  screwed  tightly  and  allowed  to  cool.  Porous 
places  incidental  to  malleable  iron  or  shrinkage-cracks  in  malleable- 
iron  fittings  are  generally  stopped  with  this  cement,  but  a  split  or  crack 
should  never  be  so  mended,  as  it  will  be  an  element  of  danger. 

For  naphtha-gases  some  of  the  heavy  body  asphaltum  varnishes 
are  considered  best,  such  as  black  air-drying  japan,  or  black  baking 
japan,  but  paraffine  varnish  should  not  be  used.  To  use  the  japans  both 
threads  of  pipes  and  fittings  should  be  dipped  in  them  and  drained,  and 
the  japan  should  be  applied  with  a  brush  when  putting  them  together, 
the  same  as  using  lead.  Red  and  white  lead  are  also  good,  but  are 
with  more  difficulty  made  air-tight. 

If  the  house  is  an  old  one,  or  has  been  finished,  and  you  have  to 
test  for  leaks,  take  off  the  meter  and  cap  the  bottom  of  the  riser ;  also 
unhang  the  gas-fixtures  and  remove  the  brackets,  and  cap  all  outlets 


134  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

carefully.  Then  use  ether  and  locate  leaks  before  tearing  up  floors  or 
breaking  plaster. 

The  mercury  should  be  made  to  stand — remain  stationary  in  the 
glass — if  possible,  before  the  work  is  passed,  but  a  fall  of  one  inch  of 
mercury  in  an  hour  would  indicate  a  comparatively  tight  job. 

Occasionally,  when  a  gas-fitter  cannot  get  a  job  tight,  there  is  a 
possibility  he  may  cut  off  the  part  or  floor  of  the  building  he  cannot 
get  sufficiently  tight  to  suit  the  inspector's  idea  of  perfection.  The 
inspector  can  only  prove  such  practice  by  removing  or  slacking  off  a 
cap  here  or  there  about  the  house  if  he  suspects  such  an  attempt.  If 
no  air  escapes,  then  he  has  the  dead  end. 


WILL  BOILING  DRINKING-WATER  PURIFY  IT? 

Q.  WILL  you  please  tell  me  if  boiling  well-water  will  purify  it  per- 
fectly, so  that  we  can  safely  drink  it,  or  is  it  necessary  to  filter  it 
also? 

A.  The  boiling  of  water  will  purify  it  so  far  as  living  organisms 
are  concerned,  and  would  probably  make  harmless  water  contaminated 
by  cholera  or  typhoid  fever  discharges.  It  would  not  remove  any 
mineral  poisons  which  might  be  present  in  the  water,  and  it  is  uncertain 
as  to  the  effect  which  it  would  have  on  certain  poisonous  substances 
analagous  to  strychnine,  which  are  sometimes  produced  in  organic 
matters  by  minute  organisms.  In  other  words,  the  destruction  of  the 
life  of  the  germs  might  not  necessarily  destroy  all  of  their  dangerous 
products. 

After  boiling,  filtration  would  only  be  needed  in  case  a  cloudiness 
had  been  produced  in  the  water,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  not  desirable  on 
account  of  the  risk  of  contaminating  the  water  by  the  filter  itself,  unless 
this  last  is  quite  new. 


DIFFERENTIAL  RAM  FOR  TESTING  FITTINGS. 
ON  a  recent  visit  to  the  workshops  of  the  Boston  Water-Works,  on 
Federal  Street,  our  attention  was  called  to   an  apparatus  for  testing 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


'35 


valves  and  fittings   to   high   pressures,  without  having  recourse  to  a 
hand  or  force  pump,  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  .the  mains  only. 

As  nearly  all  valve  and  fitting  makers  still  use  pumps  for  this  purpose, 
and  as  the  operation  is  necessarily  slow  and  laborious,  we  give  a  sketch 
of  this  apparatus  and  of  a  yoke  modified  to  hold  an  ordinary  globe- 
valve,  and  we  have  no  doubt  but  that  all  interested  in  the  testing  by 
hydraulic  pressure  of  fittings,  pipes,  radiator-bases,  sections  of  radiators 
or  coils,  will  readily  see  how  it  may  be  adapted  to  their  purpose  with 
saving  of  cleanliness. 


FIGURE  54. 

In  brief,  the  apparatus  may  be  called  a  differential  ram.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  small  cylinder  and  plunger  a  and  a  larger  cylinder  and 
plunger  b — say  the  larger  one  being  four  times  the  area  of  the  smaller 
one.  These  cylinders  are  connected  with  the  regular  water-supply 
about  as  shown,  a  three-way-cock,  t,  being  used  for  the  alternate 
admission  of  the  water  into  the  cylinders  one  way  or  the  other. 

The  fitting  to  be  tested  is  placed  in  the  yoke  e  between  two  elastic 
washers,  and  the  cock  c  is  turned  so  that  the  water  passes  through  the 
check  d,  filling  the  fitting  or  valve  and  pushing  the  piston  to  the  further 
end  of  the  large  cylinder.  Then  when  the  cock  is  reversed,  admitting 
water  on  the  piston  I),  which  is  four  times  the  area  of  the  piston  a,  it 
follows  that  should  the  initial  or  city  pressure  be  25  pounds  there 
will  be  a  pressure  of  100  pounds  in  the  valve,  and  this  pressure  will  be 


136  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

maintained  constantly,  even  should  there  be  a  small  leak,  until  the 
plungers  have  traveled  the  length  of  the  stroke.  The  small  hole  at  b 
allows  any  leakage  past  the  leathers  of  the  pistons  to  escape. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  ASHES  IN  COAL. 

Q.  WILL  you  inform  me  what  is  the  proportion  of  ashes  usually  to 
the  weight  of  the  coal  before  the  latter  is  burned?  A  says  it  is  "  fully 
one-quarter,"  B  says  "  about  one-fifth,"  while  C,  who  is  not  an 
engineer,  says  that  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  actual  weight  of 
dry  (?)  is  a  fair  average  for  good  anthracite  coal. 

An  early  reply  will  be  awaited  with  much  interest. 

A.  You  should  state  the  kind  of  coal  under  consideration,  as  in 
reference-tables  on  the  subject  the  percentage  of  ash  varies  greatly  with 
the  different  kinds  of  coal.  With  bituminous  coals  of  well-known  kinds 
— Pittsburg,  Cumberland,  Welsh,  English,  and  Scotch — it  ranges  be- 
tween two  and  eight  per  cent.,  which  does  not  include  clinkers  or  slate. 

According  to  data  collected  by  Chief-Engineer  Isherwood,  U.  S. 
Navy,  Cumberland  coal  gives  about  eight  to  ten  per  cent,  of  refuse, 
while  anthracite  of  all  kinds  gives  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
refuse  according  as  it  is  good  or  bad  in  quality,  and  with  or  without  slate. 

According  to  results  obtained  by  other  well-known  authorities, 
including  Fletcher,  Thurston,  Emery,  and  others,  the  ash  and  refuse  for 
all  coals  rarely  goes  under  ten  per  cent.,  or  over  twenty  per  cent,  by 
weight. 

According  to  twelve  of  the  published  reports  of  boiler  tests  made 
at  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  anthracite  coal  presumably  of  the  best 
obtainable  quality  gave  9.9  per  cent,  as  the  average. 

A  and  B  should  bear  in  mind  that  to  weigh  a  barrel  or  two  of 
damp  ashes  and  compare  it  to  the  estimated  weight  of  the  coal  burned 
for  a  day  is  not  the  proper  manner  for  finding  percentage  by  weight  of 
the  ashes  to  the  coal  burned.  If  they  dry  their  ashes  or  do  not  wet 
them,  they  will  find  that  one-fifth  even  is  too  great  a  percentage  of 
refuse  in  coal  that  is  purchased  as  being  of  good  quality. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


137 


AUTOMATIC   PUMP-GOVERNOR. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  writes  : 

"  SIR  :  I  noticed  in  the  Scientific  American  of  April  4,  1885,  that  a 
Mr.  Frank  A.  Gushing,  of  New  York  City,  has  patented  an  overflow- 
alarm  which  rings  a  bell  when 
the  tank  is  pumped  full.  I  will 
state  that  I  have  had  such  an 
arrangement  on  a  water-tank 
for  over  two  years,  and  it  works 
splendidly,  and  is  in  daily 
operation  ever  since.  It  does 
not  ring  any  bell  when  the  tank 
is  full,  but  it  stops  the  pumps 
when  the  tank  is  full,  and  when 
some  water  is  used  out  of  them 
the  counterbalance  opens  the 
valve  and  the  pumps  start  tip 
again.  The  valve  used  is  a 
common  2-inch  Coffin  valve, 
and  the  whole  arrangement  did 
not  cost  me  as  much  as  a  bell 
would  that  any  one  could  hear. 

"  I  will  state  that  we  start 
the  pump  in  the  morning,  the 
throttle  is  never  touched  until 
we  stop  at  night,  and  the  tanks 
are  filled  from  four  to  ten  times 
a  day.  The  pumps  stop  and 
start  automatically,  and  all  that 
is  needed  is  to  keep  up  steam. 

"  This   same   arrangement 
could  be  used  to  regulate  the 
draught,   and  also  slow  down  the   pump   if  the  supply  should  run 
short. 


FIGURE  55. 

a,  Piece  of  hose  on  overflow-pipe  ;  £,  can  to  receive 
overflow-water  (7  gallons) ;  c,  small  hole  in  bottom  of 
can  ;  d,  guide  for  the  can  to  run  up  and  down  in  so 
that  the  hose  will  always  go  into  the  can.  It  is 
nothing  more  than  a  common  box. 


138  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

"  I  will  state  that  there  is  a  small  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  can 
that  lets  the  water  out  after  it  stops  the  pump,  and  when  the  water  runs 
out  the  counterbalance  starts  the  pumps.  I  do  not  think  it  worth  a 
patent,  but  I  wish  other  people  to  use  it  and  see  the  good  of  it." 


CAST-IRON    SAFE    FOR   STEAM-RADIATORS. 

THE  illustration,  Figure  56,  shows  a  cast-iron  safe  for  steam- 
radiators. 

The  use  of  a  safe  under  direct  radiators  is  not  particularly  new, 
but  their  limited  use,  even  in  the  very  best  class  of  buildings,  coupled 
with  the  advantages  that  are  to  be  derived  from  them,  especially  in 
apartment-houses,  where  a  leaky  radiator  or  valve  on  one  floor  may  be 
the  means  of  spoiling  expensive  ceilings  and  furniture  on  the  floor 
below,  induces  us  to  give  the  accompanying  sketch,  with  a  short 

explanation  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who 
have  not  seen  them  in 
use. 

The  safe  A  is  cast 
with  a  slight  pitch  of 
the  bottom  to  the  pipe 
a,  and  with  sides  and 
ends  of  about  one  inch 
in  depth.  This  is 
FIGURE  56.  made  sufficiently  large 

to  go  under  the  heater 

and  the  connections  which  contain  the  valves,  so  that  all  joints  that  can 
possibly  leak — unless  those  in  the  connections  between  the  risers  and 
valves — are  protected,  the  drip  from  them,  if  any,  falling  into  the  safe. 
The  pipe  a  is  run  backward  to  the  riser  recess  down  which  it  is 
carried,  and  is  left  open  just  hanging  within  sight  in  the  basement,  or  it 
is  carried  to  terminate  over  a  sink,  which  latter  is  the  most  approoriate 
way. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  139 

To  prevent  smell  or  air  from  the  basement  or  cellar  passing  up 
these  pipes  into  the  room,  a  bend  should  be  used  looking  up  to  form  a 
small  water-trap  of  about  six  inches  in  depth.  These  traps  are  to  be 
filled  with  water,  which  will  not  evaporate  if  a  little  ball  or  clapper  valve 
is  placed  over  the  end  of  the  pipe. 

The  dripping  of  water  from  the  end  of  one  of  these  pipes  locates 
the  rising  line  on  which  the  leak  occurs  and  warns  the  engineer  before 
any  serious  damage  may  take  place. 

We  understand  the  arrangement  is  not  patented,  nor  is  it  patent- 
able,  and  to  whom  to  give  the  credit  for  its  first  use  we  do  not  know, 
but  they  are  now  in  use  in  the  Dakota  apartment-house  and  other 
buildings  in  New  York. 


METHODS   OF   GRADUATING   RADIATOR-SURFACE 
ACCORDING   TO   THE   WEATHER. 

Q.  Is  ANY  steam-radiator  made  with  which  you  can  regulate  the 
heat  ?  /.  e.,  supposing  it  takes  60  square  feet  of  surface  to  warm  a  given 
space  when  the  thermometer  is  at  zero  outside,  and  there  comes  a  mild 
day  when  half  the  above  surface  would  be  sufficient,  is  there  any  radi- 
ator made  in  sections  so  that  you  can  use  one  row,  two  rows,  or  three 
rows  of  pipes,  thus  regulating  the  temperature  of  the  room  according 
to  the  weather  ? 

A.  There  are  several  methods  now  before  the  public  for  accom- 
plishing the  result  you  mention.  The  earliest  of  these  is  shown  in 
Figure  57.  It  has  been  in  occasional  use  for  many  years. 

It  is  the  plainest  form  of  sectional  radiator,  being  in  substance  a 
wall-coil,  so  arranged  that  one  pipe  or  any  number  of  the  pipes  which 
go  to  make  up  the  heater  may  be  shut  off.  In  the  diagram,  c  c  c  c^ 
are  the  usual  i-inch  pipes,  which  are  hung  on  wall-plates,  and  either 
run  around  the  corner  of  the  room  or  "  mitered  up  "  on  the  wall. 
Instead  of  the  usual  headers  or  branch  tees,  special  valve  manifolds,  b  by 
are  used.  The  body  is  cast-iron,  and  the  nut  d  and  stem  and  disk  d* 
are  brass,  with  sometimes  a  brass  seat  at  e.  Thus  d'  and  e  form  a 
valve  at  the  end  of  the  pipe  c,  the  closing  of  which  prevents  the  enter- 
ing of  steam  into  the  pipe.  In  like  manner  and  at  the  same  time  the 


140 


STEAM-HEATING  AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


corresponding  valve  at  the  other  end  of  the  pipe  is  shut,  to  keep  back 
the  pressure   from  the  return-pipe.     In  theory  the  principle  is  very 

good,  but  in  practice  with  steam 
of  even  moderately  high  pres- 
sures the  valves  wear  out  too 
rapidly,  or  they  are  not  properly 
closed  in  pairs,  or  one  of  a  pair 
may  not  be  closed,  in  which  cases 
noise  is  likely  to  follow.  Another 
objection  that  has  been  developed 
in  practice  is  that  should  some 
pipes  be  shut  off  during  the  day- 
time and  the  valves  leak  or  pass 
water  by  being  imperfectly  closed, 
they  are  apt  to  freeze  during  the 
night  or  an  extreme  cold  period, 
if  the  circulation  is  not  properly 
established  again.  In  fact,  the 
great  number  of  valves  to  be 
attended  to  makes  them  imprac- 
ticable in  the  hands  of  any  but 
an  expert.  With  exhaust-steam 
they  may  be  made  to  do  good 
work  by  using  one  of  the  valve- 
manifolds  on  the  inlet  end  of  the 
coil,  having  no  pressure  in  the 
outlet,  the  condensation  being 
simply  allowed  to  run  away. 

A  modification  of  the  same 
principle   has    been    applied    to 
vertical     radiators     by     Messrs. 
Baker,    Smith    &    Co.,    of  New 
FlGURE57'  York,    for    some    time,    and    is 

shown  in  Figure  58.     It  is  an  ordinary  radiator,  divided  in  the  base 
by  partitions  /  /,  so  as  to  separate  each  row  of  tubes  into  a  different 


MISCELLANEOUS 


141 


radiator,  as  it  were  ;  each  radiator  or  section  having  its  own  set  of 
valves — /.  e.,  steam,  return,  and  air  valve  The  pipe  d  is  the  steam- 
supply  to  a  header,  a,  into  which  are  nipped  as  many  valves,  c,  as- 
there  are  sections  in  the  radiator..  These  valves  in  turn  are  connected 
with  the  base  of  the  radiator  by  right  and  left  handed  nipples,  b.  In 
like  manner  the  return-valve  c',  header  a',  and  return-pipe  d'  complete 


the  return-end  of  the  radiator.  These  heaters  are  made  as  wide  as  six 
sections,  and  have  small  holes,  e,  through  the  base,  to  allow  of  a  some- 
what better  contact  of  the  air  within  the  pipes  than  could  be  had  with 
wide  bases  if  they  were  not  perforated. 

Figure  59  shows  a  different  principle  for  accomplishing  similar 
results.  The  radiator  A  may  be  of  any  of  the  approved  vertical  radi- 
ators, or  it  may  be  a  coil.  Steam  is  carried  in  the  rising-pipe  a  at  a. 


142 


STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 


comparatively  low  pressure,  and  is  admitted  to  the  radiator  through  a 
"fractional- valve,"  c,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Frederick  Tudor,  of  New 
York,  and  of  which  a  detailed  description  and  illustration  were  given 

on  page  616,  Volume 
VIII.,  of  the  Sanitary 
Engineer.  The  valve  is 
arranged  for  but  one 
revolution  of  the  stem, 
and  is  provided  with  a 
graduated  disk  and 
pointer.  In  moderate 
weather  the  pointer  is 
moved  to  where  the  user 
finds  he  gets  the  desired 
result.  With  an  increase 
or  decrease  of  tempera- 
ture the  pointer  is  ad- 
vanced or  withdrawn, 
admitting  more  or  less 
steam  to  the  radiator. 
The  maximum  opening  of 
the  valve  is  arranged  for 
the  greatest  surface  of  the 
radiator  to  prevent  an 
overflow  or  waste.  The 
return-pipe  is  practically 
without  pressure,  and  an 
air-cock  may  be  used 
either  on  the  radiator  or 
on  the  return-pipe  in 
the  cellar  above  the  water- 


FlGCRE  59. 


line  for  the  whole  line.  To  prevent  the  water  from  the  main  return- 
pipe  backing  up  within  the  riser  b,  the  syphon  is  introduced  as  shown, 
or  a  check-valve  may  be  used,  or  both.  In  cases  where  a  compara- 
tively high  pressure  is  required  in  the  main,  the  return-riser  is  carried 


MISCELLANEOUS.  143 

into    a    separate    return-pipe,    which    runs     to    a     receiver     without 
pressure. 

Figure  60  shows  the  method  adopted  by  Edward  E.  Gold.  It  is 
one  of  the  compound  coil  radiators  inclosed  in  a  sheet-iron  case,  with  a 
register  in  the  top.  Steam  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  radiator  most  of 
the  time,  and  the  register  in  the  top  is  used  to  graduate  the  amount  of 
warm  air  passed. 

Figure  61  shows  a  method  lately  adopted  by  the  Walworth  Manu- 
facturing Co.     The  object  is  the  regulation  of  the  heat  of  rooms 


without  having  recourse  to  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  radiator- 
valves,  and  to  place  it  within  the  power  of  the  occupants  of  a  room  to 
graduate  temperatures. 

The  figure  is  a  front  elevation  of  the  apparatus  as  it  might  appear 
under  a  mantel-piece  as  a  substitute  for  a  grate,  or  the  radiator,  R,  may 
be  placed  within  any  recess  in  a  wall  or  under  the  inside  sill  of  a 
window.  In  front  of  it  is  arranged  a  flexible  curtain,  C,  of  metal  or 
other  suitable  material,  the  upper  end  of  which  is  actuated  by  a  spring- 
roller,  so  that  the  screen  or  curtain  may  be  wound  upon  it,  on  the  prin- 


144  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

ciple  of  the  shade-roller,  when  the  weight  of  the  curtain  is  lifted  by  the 
hand,  stopping  it  at  any  desired  distance  from  the  floor.     Fresh  air 


from  the  outside  may  be  admitted  to  the  inner  tubes  of  the  radiator  to 
be  warmed  and  passed  into  the  room,  the  duct  being  controlled  by  a 
hand-regulated  damper  or  valve. 


PREVENTING  FALL  OF    SPRAY    FROM   STEAM-EXHAUST 
PIPES. 

Q.  WHAT  do  you  do  in  New  York  City  to  prevent  the  water  which 
is  carried  out  of  the  exhaust-pipes  of  engines,  at  the  roofs  of  buildings, 
from  making  a  shower  which  will  fall  into  the  street  ?  I  have  been 
much  troubled  with  spray  from  this  cause,  and  the  contrivances  I  have 
used  have  not  accomplished  their  object. 

A.  There  are  several  patented  apparatus  for  this  purpose  before 
the  public.  How  well  they  accomplish  their  object  we  cannot  say, 
but  we  hear  little  or  no  complaints  about  a  spray  nuisance  in  this 
vicinity,  one  reason  being  the  extreme  height  of  most  of  our  buildings 
in  which  are  engines. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


On  the  roof  of  the  Tribune  building  we  find  the  arrangement 
shown  in  Figure  62,  which  seems  to  work  very  well,  as  it  does  not 
appear  to  wet  the  roof  ;  we  are  informed  it  is  not  patented  It  is  a  rec- 
tangular tank  a,  six  feet  deep,  and  three  feet  by  three  feet' in  horizontal 


dimensions,  within  which  is  fixed  a  12 -inch  pipe,  which  extends  about 
half-way  down.  Into  this  is  carried  a  6-inch  exhaust-pipe  c,  and  an 
8-inch  exhaust,  d.  When  all  the  engines  are  running  only  a  cloud  of 
very  fine  vapor  issues  from  the  head  of  b,  which  is  soon  dissipated  in 
the  atmosphere.  The  pipe  e  conveys  the  condensed  water  to  the  eaves- 
trough. 


EXHAUST-CONDENSER  FOR  PREVENTING  THE  FALL  OF 
SPRAY  FROM  STEAM-EXHAUST  PIPES. 

THE  cut,  Figure  63,  shows  a  hood  or  spray-preventing  cap 
— technically  called  "  exhaust-condenser  " — for  use  on  exhaust-pipes 
from  steam-engines  to  prevent  the  fall  of  spray  on  roof  or  sidewalk. 

The  pipe  S  represents  the  exhaust-pipe  as  it  comes  through  the 
roof  or  chimney,  and  the  cylinders  A  and  B  make  up  the  condenser  or 
trap. 


146 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


A  indicates  a  cylinder,  open  at  top  and 
closed  at  bottom,  except  at  its  two  apertures 
a  and  b — the  former  for  the  entrance  of 
exhaust  steam,  the  latter  for  the  exit  of  the 
water  of  condensation  entrapped  within  the 
apparatus.  From  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 
A  a  tubular  extension  or  inner  nozzle 
rises,  being  an  extension  of  the  aperture  a. 
Above  this  nozzle,  and  set  partially  within 
the  cylinder  A,  is  the  inverted  cylinder  B, 
secured  by  angle  strap-braces  or  other 
braces  to  the  interior  of  the  cylinder  A. 
A  waste-water  pipe  D  is  tapped  into  the 
aperture  b,  and  led  off  to  any  desirable 
receptacle,  drain,  or  sewer.  When  the 
engine  is  in  operation,  the  exhaust  steam 
rises  through  the  nozzle  c,  throwing 
against  the  inner  domed  top  of  the  cylinder 
B  any  water  condensed  in  the  pipes  or 
entrained  with  the  steam.  This  water  is 
deflected  downward  and  falls  back  upon 

the  annular  bottom  of  the  cylinder  A,  while  the  uncondensed  vapor 
escapes  out  of  the  trap  around  the  cylinder  B  through  the  enlarged 
annular  space  between  the  cylinders  B  and  A,  the  water  discharging 
itself  through  the  aperture  b  and  pipe  D.  The  cylinders  B  and  A  may 
be  made  of  any  suitable  material,  but  preferably  of  cast-iron. 


STEAM- HEATING  APPARATUS    AND  "PLENUM"  SYSTEM 
IN  THE  KALAMAZOO  INSANE  ASYLUM. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  sends  us  a  detail  of  the  radiator  and  connect- 
ing-pipes, as  planned  by  C.  M.  Wells,  C.  E.,  architect,  for  the  remodel- 
ing of  the  steam-heating  apparatus  of  both  the  male  and  female  insane 
asylum  buildings  at  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


147 


The  buildings  were  originally  planned  by  Dr.  Van  Dusen,  the 
medical  superintendent  at  the  time,  and  the  heating-apparatus  was 
erected  by  Joseph  Nason,  of  New  York.  The  system  then  used  was 
chamber-heating ;  all  the  coils  for  each  building  were  massed  at  the 
extreme  end  of  an  air-duct,  away  from  the  main  building,  which  con- 
nected with  a  passage  D,  shown  in  Figure  64,  and  the  air  was  forced 
by  a  fan  driven  by  an  engine,  sending  the  warm  air  through  the 
plenum  D  and  through  the  flue  E  to  the  rooms  and  halls.  In  time  it 
was  found  that  though  a  fan  could  force  sufficient  air  for  the  whole 
building,  and  there  was  possibly  enough  pipe-surface,  yet,  in  windy 
weather,  it  was  impossible  to  warm  certain  halls  depending 
on  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  the  outside  pressure 
forcing  back  the  warm  air. 
The  management,  then,  as  a 
matter  of  experiment,  added 
supplementary  box- coils 
placed  under  the  entrance  to 
the  flues  E,  which  were 
found  to  need  them  most. 
The  experiment  proved  sat- 
isfactory, and  gradually  the 
engineer,  under  the  direction 
of  the  medical  superintendent,  removed  the  original  coils, 
distributed  them  throughout  the  plenum,  and  boxed  them 
with  wooden  casings.  In  this  condition  (necessarily  a  patch- 
work) the  apparatus  was  used,  the  fan  being  still  retained  until 
the  spring  of  1881,  when  the  Legislature  voted  money,  at  the  request 
of  Dr.  Palmer,  the  present  medical  superintendent,  and  the  commis- 
sioner, for  the  entire  remodeling  of  the  apparatus  on  the  same  princi- 
ple with  regard  to  the  disposition  of  the  heating-surface,  and  in  respect 
to  piping  adopted  the  low-pressure  gravity  system,  still  retaining 
the  fan,  though  not  always  having  to  use  it,  as  each  flue  has  its 
separate  heater  with  the  new  system. 


FIGURE  64. 


148  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

The  diagram  is  a  cross-section  of  the  passages  under  the  build- 
ings, with  a  total  length  of  about  2,200  feet.  A  is  the  main  steam- 
pipe  hung  on  expansion  hangers,  which  are  adjusted  by  a  nut  in  the 
bracket  G  ;  a  a,  the  steam  connections  to  radiators,  are  purposely 
elbowed  up  and  down  as  shown,  to  compensate  for  the  expansion  of 
the  main  ;  B  is  a  radiator  of  the  cast-iron  extended-surface  pattern 
(much  liked  by  the  engineers),  and  b  b  are  the  return-water  connections 
to  the  main  returns  C  C.  The  object  of  having  two  main  return 
pipes  is  to  prevent  the  too  frequent  crossing  of  the  passage  with 
small  pipes  ;  F  is  a  galvanized-iron  coil  casing  or  hood,  arranged  to 
be  taken  off  for  cleaning  or  repairs,  and  is  open  at  the  bottom,  as 
shown  by  the  arrows. 

With  this  method  it  has  been  no  trouble  to  get  a  uniform 
heat  throughout  the  buildings,  each  flue  doing  its  full  duty  inde- 
pendent of  the  others. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  A  PRISON. 

THE  accompanying  diagrams,  Figures  65  and  66,  illustrate  the 
principles  of  the  warming  and  ventilating  of  the  New  York  State 
Reformatory  at  Elmira,  N.  Y. 

Figure  65  is  the  detail  of  the  radiators,  which  present  some  novel 
features. 

Figure  66  is  a  cross-section  of  one  of  the  wings  of  the  building, 
showing  a  "cell  block,"  of  which  there  are  four,  with  the  arrangement 
of  the  air-passages  and  the  course  of  the  air  from  the  time  it  enters 
fresh  at  the  window  a  until  it  escapes  through  the  exhaust-chamber  c. 

In  prisons  the  problem  of  efficiently  warming  and  ventilating  is 
complicated  by  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the  safe  keeping  of  the 
inmates,  and  it  requires  methods  not  ordinarily  met  with  and  of  unusual 
strength  of  construction. 

The  heaters  are  round  vertical-tube  radiators  set  under  the 
windows,  with  openings  in  the  centres  of  the  bases.  In  corresponding 
openings  in  the  stone  flags  are  set  strong  cast-iron  pipes  t,  with  flanges 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


149 


built  into  the  masonry.  These  pipes  extend  up  through  the  openings 
in  the  bases  of  the  radiators  which  they  fit  closely,  connecting  the  fresh- 
air  ducts  with  the  radiators  and  preventing  water  (when  washing  the 
floors)  from  entering  the  ducts.  The  upper  end  of  the  pipe  /  is  also 
fitted  with  a  strong-  plate,  /,  which  acts  as  a  baffle  to  the  entering  air, 
forcing  it  between  the  tubes  of  the  heater,  and  also  as  a  cover  to  the 
pipe,  so  that  nothing  of  large  size  can  be  passed  through  it. 

The  number  of  concentric  rows  of  tubes  in  the  radiators  is  four. 
The  two  outer  rows  are  separated  from  the  inner  ones  by  a  galvanized 
sheet-iron  partition  or  septum  r,  the  object  being  to  divide  the  inside 
rows  from  the  outer  ones 
so  as  to  make  part  of  each 
radiator      practically    an 
indirect   heater,     the    air 
from    the     duct     only 
coming    in    contact   with 
the  inner  rows,  while  the 
outer  rows  warm  the  air 
already  within    the   halls 
and    give     direct    radia- 
tion. 

The  galvanized  sheet- 
iron  partition  is  simply  a 
sheet  of  No.  20  iron,  bent 
and  riveted  at  the  edge 
and  slipped  into  place, 
and  it  may  be  used  with 
any  round  radiator,  making  what  is  called  a  "direct-indirect-radiator." 

It  is  claimed  that  the  short  shaft  or  flue  formed  by  this  simple 
device  accelerates  the  movement  of  the  air  to  a  very  considerable  degree, 
and  prevents  the  possibility  of  its  being  drawn  down  into  the  duct,  by 
preventing  a  reversal  of  the  movement  of  the  air  in  the  towers. 

For  radiators  arranged  in  this  way,  it  is  said  that  marble  tops 
are  not  as  good  as  cast-iron  fret-work,  as  the  former  hinder  the  easy 
ascent  of  the  current  of  air  ;  and  we  believe  that  for  all  purposes  the 


FIGURE  65. 


150  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

marble  top  does  not  give  quite  as   high  an  efficiency  for   the  same 
reason. 

There  are  500  cells,  each  of  which  have  two  4X4-inch  flues,  one 
from  near  the  ceiling  and  the  other  from  a  cast-iron  niche  near  the 
floor  The  one  near  the  ceiling  is  fitted  with  a  heavy  cast-iron  frame 


built  into  the  walls,  while  the  lower  one  connects  with  the  top  of  the 
"night-bucket"  niche.  The  flues  are  separated  their  whole  length, 
each  terminating  in  the  exhaust-chamber  c  as  shown,  and  there  is  no 
means  of  closing  them. 

The  exhaust-chambers  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  blocks  of 


MISCELLANEOUS.  1$! 

cells,  so  that  the  flues  are  perfectly  straight,  a  person  in  the  chamber 
being  able  to  see  the  light  in  the  cells. 

The  steam-coils  within  the  exhaust-chambers  are  of  i^-inch  pipes 
and  extend  over  the  upper  ends  of  all  the  flues. 

The  air-ducts  extend  all  around  the  wings  near  the  outer  walls 
as  shown,  and  communicate  with  the  fresh-air  shafts  or  towers,  each 
tower  having  a  separate  section  of  the  duct. 

The  course  of  the  fresh  air  is  in  at  the  window  a  and  down 
through  the  tower,  thence  through  the  air-ducts  to  the  radiators, 
through  which  it  passes  to  the  halls,  from  which  it  is  drawn  into  the 
cells  by  the  action  of  the  independent  flues,  and  thence  passes  out 
through  the  aspirator. 

The  coils  in  the  aspirator  or  exhaust-chamber  are  not  connected 
with  the  regular  heating  system  of  steam-pipes,  but  with  a  special 
system  provided  for  them,  and  with  the  valves  in  the  boiler-room,  so 
that  they  can  be  under  the  control  of  the  engineer  without  his  enter- 
ing the  buildings  ;  this  also  admits  of  using  the  exhaust-chamber  and 
coils  during  the  summer  and  when  steam  is  not  otherwise  required,  so 
causing  a  rapid  movement  of  air  at  all  seasons. 

We  are  informed  that  when  the  air  is  moved  sufficiently  often  to 
give  each  cell  one-half  a  cubic  foot  of  air  per  second,  the  difference 
of  temperature  between  the  upper  galleries  and  the  flag  is  only  five 
degrees  in  the  coldest  weather. 

The  system  of  steam-pipes  is  "gravity-return,"  and  the  pressure 
is  increased  or  decreased  to  suit  the  weather. 

The  boilers  are  ordinary  horizontal  tubular,  five  in  number,  16 
feet  long  by  4  feet  in  diameter.  Two,  and  sometimes  three,  are  used 
on  the  heating  apparatus,  and  one  for  cooking,  drying,  etc.,  while  one 
is  always  in  reserve. 

We  are  indebted  to  Z.  R.  Brockway,  General  Superintendent  of 
the  prison,  under  whose  supervision  the  institution  was  built,  for  the 
drawing  of  the  building. 


152  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


AMOUNT  OF  HEAT  DUE  TO  CONDENSATION  OF  WATER. 

Q.  WHAT  I  have  been  informed  is  a  late  and  novel  method  for 
determining  the  amount  of  heat  imparted  by  steam  in  a  steam-heating 
apparatus  consists  in  measuring  or  weighing  the  water  condensed 
in  the  apparatus,  and  therefrom  estimating  the  amount  of  heat 
due  to  condensation.  The  successive  steps  are  :  First,  supplying  steam 
at  a  known  pressure  and  temperature  ;  second,  condensing  the  steam  in 
the  apparatus ;  and  third,  measuring  or  weighing  the  water.  Is  not 
this  the  only  method,  and  is  it  properly  stated  ? 

A.  When  steam  is  used  for  warming  air  which  is  unconfmed, 
having  free  access  to  the  glass  of  the  windows  and  to  other  cold 
surfaces,  as  well  as  changing  constantly  through  the  ventilators,  there 
is  no  means  of  measuring  the  heat  which  has  been  given  off  except  by 
weighing  the  water  which  has  been  formed  within  the  pipes. 

If  the  condensed  steam  (hot  water)  is  received  in  a  vessel  which 
is  open  to  atmosphere  and  weighed  at  a  constant  temperature — say 
200°  Fah. — the  units  of  heat  given  off  will  be  978.6,  whether  the  steam 
had  one  pound  pressure  above  atmosphere  or  40  pounds,  and  is 
equivalent  to  the  warming  of  939  cubic  feet  of  air  50  degrees. 

To  make  it  necessary  to  consider  pressures  and  temperatures,  the 
water  would  have  to  be  kept  under  the  same  high  pressure  and  at  the 
same  temperature  as  the  steam  was ;  in  other  words,  if  you  cooled  a 
pound  of  steam  from  40  pounds  pressure  to  water  at  the  same  heat  and 
pressure,  there  would  be  only  893  units  of  heat  given  off — equivalent  to 
warming  857  cubic  feet  of  air  50  degrees. 

The  first  method  is  practicable,  and  can  be  done  by  drawing  the 
water  into  a  bucket,  weighing  it,  and  taking  its  temperature  with  a 
thermometer.  The  second  method  cannot  be  carried  out  without  some 
especial  contrivance  for  weighing  the  water  within  the  pipes,  at  the 
same  time  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  water  constant  while  waiting 
for  it  to  accumulate. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  153 

EXPANSION-JOINTS. 

THE  sketch,  Figure  67,  illustrates  a  form  of  joint  designed  to 
obviate  the  tendency  to  "  telescope,"  which  is  one  of  the  objections  to 
most  expansion-pipes.  The  flange  A  is  for  connection  to  stop-cock 
(stop-valve  on  top  of  dome),  and  B  is  the  steam-pipe  leading  to 


FIGURE  67. 

adjacent  boilers.  Stops  may  be  fitted  to  the  latter  outside  of  each 
gland  to  prevent  any  attempt  to  slide  out,  in  case  of  emergency,  but 
otherwise  they  are  not  required.  In  fact,  I  am  of  opinion  that  the 
ordinary  socket  pipe  is  safe  enough  itself  ;  and  I  have  never  yet  seen  a 
boiler-seating  which  was  not  amply  capable  of  sustaining  all  the  side 
pressure  caused  by  the  steam  forcing  a  surface  equal  in  area  to  the 
pipe. — C.  R.,  in  Mechanical  World. 

[C.  R.'s  expansion-joint  is  a  form  not  common  to  steam-fitters  and 
users,  not  being  a  regular  article  of  stock  with  any  of  the  houses  which 
make  a  specialty  of  such  goods. — ED.] 


RESETTING    A     HOUSE-HEATING    BOILER— A    POSSIBLE 
SAVING    OF    FUEL— BEST    METHOD    OF    FIRING. 

Q.  I  HAVE  a  horizontal  boiler  set  in  my  house  for  warming 
purposes.  It  is  very  expensive  to  run  in  the  matter  of  fuel,  and  the 
brick-work  is  so  dilapidated  and  cracked  that  I  am  advised  to  reset  it. 
Will  resetting  and  stopping  the  cracks  save  much  of  the  fuel,  and  if  I 


154  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

reset  it  will  I  be  any  better  off  at  the  end  of  another  year  ?  The  brick- 
layer who  did  the  work  the  first  time  says  I  will  not,  and  that  all  boiler- 
"  walls  crack. 

A.  If  your  foundations  and  boiler-walls  have  sunk  and  cracked 
badly  there  is  reason  to  assume  that  the  walls  rest  on  sand,  mud,  or 
made  land,  and  resetting  will  probably  greatly  improve  the  boiler.  In 
any  case  excavate  and  put  in  about  ten  inches  of  good  concrete  over  the 
whole  of  the  bottom.  Then,  when  set,  pave  the  whole  with  hard-burned 
bricks  set  on  edge,  and  on  this  begin  your  walls.  This  will  prevent 
excessive  cracks  for  the  future,  but  will  not  prevent  one  crack  in  the 
side  walls  near  the  middle,  which  nearly  always  appears  in  the  outer 
sides,  and  is  due  to  the  greater  expansion  of  the  fire-bricks  and  inside 
linings  of  the  furnace.  The  concrete  makes  a  unit  of  the  bottom  of 
sufficient  strength  to  support  the  boiler  and  walls.  Many  think  it 
unnecessary  to  do  this  in  wet  sand,  and  cite  the  cases  of  other  founda- 
tions when  they  reach  damp  sand.  But  their  view  will  not  hold  good 
for  boiler  or  furnace  work,  as  the  heat  drys  the  sand  and  makes  a 
quicksand  of  it.  Another  reason  for  putting  in  a  solid  concrete  bottom 
is  to  cut  off  moisture. 

It  may  also  be  that  your  grate  is  too  large,  and  that  you  waste  fuel 
in  this  manner.  Eight  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour 
will  give  best  average  economy,  but  presumably  with  slow  combustion, 
such  as  you  must  have  with  an  automatically  regulated  boiler,  you  had 
better  proportion  the  grate  for  from  five  to  six  pounds  of  coal  per  hour. 
If  you  then  consider  thirty  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  to  each  1,000  super- 
ficial feet  of  radiators  in  the  building  good  practice,  you  will  be  able  to 
determine  the  size  of  grate  you  should  use.  This  would  call  for  six 
square  feet  of  grate,  and  should  the  boiler  be  thirty-six  inches  in 
diameter  with  1,000  feet  of  surface,  a  3o//x34/if  or  a  $o"x$o/'  grate  will  be 
required.  Not  knowing  whether  to  charge  the  waste  to  the  size  of 
grate  or  to  poor  settings,  we  give  the  above  dimensions  so  that  too 
much  will  not  be  expected  of  the  new  settings,  should  you  decide  to 
make  the  improvement. 

A  properly  set  horizontal  tubular  boiler  is  not  a  wasteful  one,  as 
few  classes  of  boilers  do  better. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  155 

HOW   TO    FIND    THE    WATER-LINE    OF  A  BOILER- 
POSITION   OF    TRY-COCKS. 

Q.  SOME  time  ago  I  bought  one  of  Baldwin's  works  on  steam- 
heating,  and  though  it  gives  valuable  information,  it  does  not  tell  me 
how  to  get  the  exact  water-lines  in  various  makes  and  shapes  of  boilers 
or  what  proportion  to  allow  for  steam  and  what  for  water.  Where 
should  the  highest  try-cock  be,  and  also  the  lowest  when  put  directly 
into  the  boiler,  and  what  proportion  do  you  allow  between  each  cock 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  boiler  ? 

A.  When  steam  is  drawn  from  a  boiler  with  a  regular  water-feed, 
the  steam  being  used  for  supplying  engines  or  other  purposes,  and 
when  the  water  is  not  returned,  all  that  is  required  is  a  safe  water-line  ; 
and  by  a  "  safe  "  water-line  is  meant  one  sufficiently  above  the  crown- 
sheets  or  tubes  to  give  time  for  interruptions  in  the  management  of  the 
feed-water. 

In  a  heating-apparatus  where  the  water  returns  by  gravity  the  case 
is  different.  With  such  apparatus  there  should  be  water  enough  above 
the  crown-sheets  or  tubes  to  fill  all  pipes  or  radiators  with  steam  at  the 
highest  pressure  ever  likely  to  be  carried  before  the  water-level  falls  to> 
a  dangerous  water-line  ;  and  not  only  this,  but  a  little  more,  as  at  times 
of  first  starting  a  gravity-apparatus  the  water  does  not  always  begin  to 
"comeback"  or  return  properly  when  the  pipes  are  first  filled  with 
steam.  The  water,  of  course,  may  be  provided  for  by  letting  water  into 
an  apparatus  which  acts  this  way,  but  after  the  apparatus  is  in  train  it 
has  to  be  let  out  again  and  will  cause  trouble  and  danger,  as  it  will  some 
day  result  in  the  blow-off  cock  being  forgotten  for  a  few  minutes. 

To  find  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  have  in  a  boiler  above  1 
the  safe-level  for  a  gravity  apparatus,  calculate  the  cubic  contents  of 
all  pipes  and  radiators  and  the  space  above  the  water-line  in  the  boiler    / 
in  cubic  feet  and  divide  it  by  1,061,  718,  614,  510,  and  435  for  10,  20, 
30,  40,  and  50  pounds  of  steam  respectively,  and  the  answer  will  be  in 
cubic  feet  of  water.    By  doubling  the  amount  thus  obtained  you  will  be  \ 
safe  with  any  gravity  apparatus  which  will   work   ordinarily  well   in  / 
returning  its  water. 


156  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

The  distance  between  the  try-cocks  is  an  arbitrary  matter,  and  no 
positive  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  it,  two  or  three  inches  being 
common. 


LOW-PRESSURE    HOT-WATER   SYSTEM    FOR   HEATING 
BUILDINGS   IN   ENGLAND. 

FOR  dwelling-houses,  a  "  register-stove  "  or  "range  "  in  each  room 
Is  the  favorite  means  of  heating  in  England  ;  and,  while  this  plan  heats 
a  small  room  tolerably  well,  it  is  evidently  a  very  imperfect  mode  of 
heating  a  large  room,  while  for  large  public  buildings  and  greenhouses 
it  is  simply  useless. 

A  comparatively  short  time  ago  the  hot-air  system  was  largely  used 
in  England,  but  now  it  is  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  "low- 
pressure  hot- water  "  system. 

This  method  of  heating  is  effected  by  means  of  a  boiler,  in  which 
the  heat  is  generated,  and  a  system  of  pipes  laid  around  the  building, 
which  conveys  the  heat  from  the  boiler,  and  distributes  it  in  the  various 
rooms  where  it  is  required. 

The  usual  temperature  of  low-pressure  hot- water  pipes  is  from  180° 
to  200°  Fah.,  and  it  is  nearly  impossible  for  them  ever  to  obtain  a 
higher  temperature  than  212°. 

It  can  be  said  in  favor  of  low-pressure  hot-water  that  there  is  no 
danger  from  excess  of  pressure  or  through  the  carelessness  of  unskilled 
attendants. 

Like  all  other  inventions,  however,  its  first  application  was  simple 
and  limited,  but  gradually  its  principles  have  become  so  well  known  in 
England  that  there  is  no  building  too  large  or  too  complicated  to  be 
warmed  on  this  plan.  To  understand  the  system  correctly,  and  thus 
enable  it  to  be  successfully  applied,  some  knowledge  is  necessary  of 
the  course  of  heated  water  circulating  in  pipes,  and  of  the  principles  on 
which  the  successful  working  of  an  apparatus  depends.  Without  this 
knowledge  errors  will  be  made  in  the  construction  of  an  apparatus, 
which  will  cause  its  failure.  In  fact,  this  has  often  been  the  case  in 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


'57 


past  years,  and  in  some  instances  has  caused  apparatus  to  be  condemned 
as  worthless,  when  in  reality  the  ignorance  of  the  hot-water  engineer 
alone  was  to  blame. 

Two  theories  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  the  circulation  of 
water  when  heated  through  a  system  of  pipes  :  one  by  Tredgold,  in 
his  work  on  "  Heating  by  Steam,"  and  another  by  Hood,  in  his  work 
on  "Warming  Buildings." 

Hood's  theory,  which  is  manifestly  the  correct  one,  is  briefly  stated 
as  follows  : 


B 

7> 

^ 

_-___      -_    ; 

---.- 

^\ 

- 

1 

;; 

-: 

1 

:-'- 

f: 

hill 

\\ 

1 

.nn  -- 

2j 

k-4 

u 

ttSJ 

On  the  application  of  heat  to  water  at  or  above  39°  Fah.,  it  increases 
in  volume  and  decreases  in  density  ;  therefore,  a  column  of  water  at 
120°  Fah.  \<=>. heavier  than  another  column  of  the  same  height  but 
heated  to  180°.  This  principle  operates  in  a  hot- water  apparatus  in 
the  following  manner  : 

In  Figure  68,  A  represents  the  boiler.  On  the  application  of  heat 
the  water  contained  in  the  boiler  becomes  heated,  and  the  heated  par- 
ticles rise  to  the  point  B  in  the  flow-pipe.  The  column  B  C — /.  e.,  the 
water  contained  in  the  boiler  and  y&w-pipe — expands,  and  becomes 


158  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

lighter,  bulk  for  bulk,  than  that  which  is  contained  in  the  return  or 
descending  pipe  D  E.  This  causes  a  somewhat  greater  pressure  at  E 
than  at  C,  and  in  consequence  of  this  extra  pressure  at  E  the  water  is 
forced  along  the  bottom  pipe  into  the  boiler,  as  shown  by  the  arrow. 
Just  as  the  colder  water  enters  the  boiler,  an  equal  amount  of  hot  water 
leaves  it  by  the  flow-pipe.  In  this  way  a  constant  circulation  is  kept 
up.  The  water  leaves  the  boiler  heated.  It  is  constantly  giving  out 
warmth  as  it  flows  through  the  pipes,  and  is,  therefore,  colder  as  it  gets 
further  away  from  the  boiler — the  flow-pipes  always  being  warmer  than 
the  returns.  So  long  as  heat  is  applied  to  the  boiler  this  difference  of 
temperature  of  necessity  exists,  and  a  constant  circulation  is  the  result. 
F  is  a  feed-cistern  regulated  by  a  ball-cock,  and  connected  to  the 
return-pipe  near  the  boiler. 

Every  hot-water  apparatus  may  be  said  to  consist  of  two  parts — 
viz.,  (i)  a  boiler,  or  that  part  of  the  apparatus  in  which  the  heat  is  gen- 
erated and  imparted  to  the  water,  and  (2)  a  system  of  pipes  (with  the 
necessary  air-vents),  which  may  be  called  the  heat-radiating  surface,  or 
that  part  of  the  apparatus  which  conveys  the  heat  from  the  boiler  and 
distributes  it  in  the  various  parts  of  a  building,  as  may  be  required. 

In  erecting  an  apparatus,  the  following  are  vital  points,  which 
must  always  be  kept  in  view  :  The  boiler  should  be  the  lowest  part,  and 
the  pipes  running  from  the  boiler  must  gradually  ascend,  without  any 
dips  or  depressions  under  doorways  or  otherwise,  until  they  reach  their 
furthest  extremity.  All  ascending  pipes  are  flow-pipes,  and  the 
descending  pipes  are  returns.  The  water  always  flows  from  the  highest 
part  of  the  boiler,  and  re-enters  at  the  lowest  part,  or  as  nearly  so  as 
possible. 

The  apparatus  shown  by  the  figure  is  of  the  simplest  form,  with 
only  one  circulation,  but,  as  previously  stated,  it  is  capable  of  being 
applied  in  an  equally  simple,  but  more  expensive  manner,  so  as  to  be 
sufficient  to  warm  the  largest  public  building,  warehouse,  factory,  or 
range  of  greenhouses. 

A  very  important  part  of  the  apparatus,  and  that  which  makes  it  a 
success  economically,  is,  of  course,  the  boiler  ;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
means  for  utilizing  the  fuel  to  best  advantage.  A  large  variety  of 


MISCELLANEOUS.  159 

designs  have  been  introduced  into  the  market  at  various  times,  both  of 
the  "  independent "  types  and  of  those  requiring  brick-work. 

Independent  boilers  are  very  useful  in  many  cases,  but  can  only  be 
profitably  employed  where  the  length  of  pipe  to  be  heated  is  small. 
Generally  speaking,  it  is  best  to  have  a  boiler  set  in  brick-work.  In 
these  latter  boilers  the  fuel  is  used  to  much  better  advantage  than  is 
the  case  with  "  independent  boilers,"  because  the  flames  and  heated 
gases  are  carried  by  means  of  flues  all  round  the  exterior  of  the  boiler 
after  the  fire-box  and  flues  have  absorbed  all  the  heat  possible  during 
the  passage  of  the  gases  of  combustion.  By  this  means  the  greater 
part  of  the  heat  generated  in  the  furnace  is.  utilized  instead  of  a  large 
portion  of  it  being  allowed  to  escape  up  the  chimney,  as  is  the  case 
with  many  independent  boilers,  without  doing  the  least  good,  or  having 
the  least  effect  in  the  way  of  heating  water.  In  addition  to  this,  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  heat  is  radiated  from  the  external  surface  of  an 
independent  boiler,  unless  it  be  covered  with  a  non-conducting  sub- 
stance, such  as  silicate,  and,  as  the  boiler  itself  is  usually  fixed  in  the 
cellar,  where  this  heat  is  seldom  or  never  required,  it  represents  so 
much  heat  and  a  proportionate  amount  of  fuel  wasted. 

The  qualifications  of  a  good  boiler  are  simplicity  in  design,  durabil- 
ity and  economy  in  consumption  of  fuel,  combined  with  efficiency,  and  a 
reasonable  price.  By  always  remembering  these  very  important  requi- 
sites, it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  cheapest  boilers  sold,  if  not  carefully  selected, 
will  probably  prove  the  most  expensive  in  the  long  run.  Every  boiler 
should  be  made  of  wrought-iron,  not  cast-metal,  as  cast-iron  boilers  are 
liable  to  crack  without  a  moment's  notice,  and  that  too,  perhaps,  when 
the  apparatus  is  most  required.  Many  boilers  are  now  made  fulfilling 
all  the  necessary  conditions  already  named,  and  may  be  described  gen- 
erally as  boilers  of  the  "  saddle  "  form,  with  one  or  more  return-flues, 
both  internal  and  external.  "  Saddle  boilers  "  are  always  preferable  to 
upright  boilers,  as  horizontal  heating-surface  is  so  much  more  effective 
than  heating-surface  which  is  vertically  disposed. 

AN  ENGLISH  HOT-WATER  HEATER. 


l6o  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

[COMMENT  ON  THE  PRECEDING  BY  THE  EDITOR.] 

Though  the  principles  explained  are  thoroughly  understood  by 
our  American  heating  engineers,  yet  to  many  readers  they  will  be 
instructive  and  interesting — notably,  to  a  large  number  of  men  in  the 
plumbing  business  who  are  unfamiliar  with  the  principles  of  hot-water 
circulation  in  connection  with  domestic  range-boilers. 

The  question  of  absolute  safety  cannot  be  gainsaid  when  consid- 
ered in  connection  with  the  apparatus  shown  and  described,  and  for 
horticultural  purposes  it  is  conceded  by  all  to  be  the  most  practicable 
method  of  heating. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  used  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  residences 
and  single  offices  or  suites  in  the  direct-radiation  form — /  e.,  where  the 
coils  are  in  the  rooms — for  the  reason  that  the  space  occupied  by  the 
water-coils  is  largely  in  excess  of  that  occupied  by  direct  steam-radi- 
ators, especially  on  account  of  the  coils  having  to  occupy  a  horizontal 
position,  and  because  they  must  be  larger  in  diameter  and  greater  in 
amount  of  surface.  A  great  many  of  the  Government  buildings 
throughout  the  country  are  warmed  by  indirect  low-pressure  hot-water 
apparatus,  in  which  coils  of  3-inch  cast-iron  pipes  form  the  heating- 
stacks,  through  which  the  fresh  entering  air  has  to  pass  on  its  way  to 
the  rooms  and  apartments.  Many  private  residences  in  New  York  and 
vicinity  are  also  warmed  by  indirect  hot-water  methods,  some  of  which 
are  low  pressure,  though  a  few  are  on  the  "Perkins  system,"  or  a  sys- 
tem somewhat  akin  to  it,  in  which  the  temperatures  are  kept  at  a  max- 
imum of  about  260°  Fah. 

By  the  direct  method,  such  as  our  correspondent  describes,  many 
of  our  city  houses,  with  fronts  of  twenty-five  feet  or  thereabouts,  in 
blocks,  with  windows  and  cooling-surfaces  in  front  and  rear  only,  could 
be  warmed  to  good  advantage.  Of  course,  we  should  have  to  tolerate 
horizontal  pipes  of  large  dimensions  across  the  front  and  back  walls 
under  the  windows,  and  we  are  satisfied  that  direct  radiation  under 
such  conditions  is  better  than  indirect  radiation  from  a  "  fire-place 
heater  "  down-stairs,  which  warms  about  two  rooms  overhead,  and  than 
some  furnaces  which  take  air  from  a  lower  room  or  basement. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  l6l 

With  regard  to  the  comparative  merits  of  cast  and  wrought  iron 
boilers  *for  hot  water,  there  is  room  for  considerable  difference  of 
opinion,  and,  assuming  all  things  are  the  same  except  the  natures  of 
the  metals,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  like  boilers  will  do  like  duty, 
though  the  cast-iron  boiler  will  be  the  most  easily  broken ;  although,  on 
the  other  hand,  makers  of  cast-iron  boilers  claim  that,  with  certain  well- 
known  forms,  the  result  of  gradual  development,  the  question  of  break- 
ing is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  that  they  are  able  to  make  forms  that 
cannot  be  made  in  wrought-iron.  However,  this  latter  is  a  purely 
practical  question,  which  cannot  be  decided  in  one  general  answer. 

The  Sanitary  Engineer  offices  and  printing-office  are  warmed  by  a 
low-pressure  hot-water  apparatus,  simply  because  we  found  it  best 
suited  to  our  own  particular  situation,  and  in  adopting  it  we  did  not 
mean  to  imply  that  we  considered  it  the  best  for  all  places.  Hot-water 
heating  is  largely  in  use  in  Canada  and  the  maritime  provinces  for 
residences  and  buildings  of  limited  size,  but  for  large  buildings  steam 
is  now  being  more  generally  used. 


STEAM-HEATING    APPARATUS     IN     THE      MANHATTAN 
COMPANY'S  AND  MERCHANTS'  BANK  BUILDING. 

THE  illustrations  show  the  plans  of  the  steam-heating  apparatus, 
boilers,  pipes,  pumps,  etc.,  of  the  Manhattan  Company's  and  Merchants' 
Bank  Building,  40  and  42  Wall  Street,  New  York. 

From  Figure  69  a  conception  can  be  obtained  of  the  operation  of  a 
"  graduated  system"  of  steam-warming  in  a  large  building. 

The  term  "  graduated  system  "  comes  from  the  use  of  a  "graduat- 
ing-valve  "  on  the  radiators. 

It  is  well  known  that  with  most  systems  of  steam-warming  in 
general  use,  the  steam  must  be  turned  on  full  to  a  radiator  ;  in  other 
words,  the  valves  at  both  ends  of  the  heater  must  be  wide  open  when 
heat  is  required,  or  the  result  will  be  loud  noise  in  the  radiators  or 
coils.  This,  in  only  moderately  cold  weather,  will  make  the  room  too 
warm,  provided  the  radiator  is  proportioned  for  cold  winter  weather, 


162  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

and  there  is  nothing  left  for  the  occupant  but  to  turn  on  and  off  the 
steam,  as  often  as  he  finds  the  room  uncomfortable,  either  in  one  direc- 
tion or  the  other.  This  is  obviated  to  some  extent  by  having  several 
radiators  in  a  room,  one  or  more  of  which  can  be  in  use  or  closed,  as 
desired,  or  by  having  one  radiator  with  two  or  more  sections,  each 
section  controlled  by  a  set  of  valves,  or  by  inclosing  the  radiator  in  a 
case  with  a  register  in  its  top.  In  the  present  case  the  object  is  to 
have  the  radiator — and  the  extent  of  its  surface  warmed — within  the 
control  of  the  individual  who  sits  near  it,  and  to  leave  it  within  his 
power  to  graduate  the  surface  so  warmed  by  as  fine  subdivisions 
as  he  pleases,  by  the  manipulation  of  a  single  valve,  a  description 
of  which  will  be  given  hereafter. 

In  brief,  the  system  of  heating  is  as  follows  :  Steam  is  taken  from 
the  boilers  B  (Figures  69  and  70)  at  any  pressure — fifteen  to  twenty 
pounds  being  usual — to  the  regulating-valve  R  V.  There  it  is  reduced 
automatically  to  a  constant  pfessure  of  two  pounds  per  square  inch  ; 
thence  it  is  conveyed  for  distribution  through  the  8-inch  low-pressure 
main  steam-pipe  (L  P  M  S)  to  two  6-inch  rising  lines  (M  S  R),  up 
which  it  passes  to  the  main  distributing-pipe,  eight  inches  in  diameter, 
at  the  ceiling  of  the  eighth  or  top  story,  M  D  P  in  the  diagram, 
Figure  69,  and  in  the  eighth-floor  plan,  Figure  71.  From  the  main  at 
the  eighth  story  it  is  distributed  downward  through  pipes,  which 
conventionally  are  called  risers,  and  which,  though  they  distribute  down- 
ward in  this  case,  are  still  known  as  "main  distributing  rising-pipes," 
marked  M  D  R  P,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  all  of 
which  are  shown  on  the  eighth-story  plan  as  the  diagonal  dotted  pipes. 

These  pipes  are  principally  three  inches  in  diameter  where  they 
leave  the  main  on  the  upper  story,  and  terminate  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter at  the  basement-floor,  below  which  they  are  i^  inches  as  relief- 
pipes  only  to  where  they  join  the  main  return-pipes — M  R  in  diagram 
and  cellar  plan.  Parallel  to  these  pipes,  but  starting  at  the  floor  of  the 
eighth  story  and  running  downward,  are  the  "main  return-risers." 
These  pipes  are  entirely  without  pressure,  other  than  atmosphere,  and 
are  sealed  against  the  pressure  from  the  main  return-pipes  by  the  water- 
seal  S,  which  is  five  feet  six  inches  in  depth,  and  sufficient  to  resist 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


163 


J  - 


FIGURE  6g. 


164  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

two  pounds  water-pressure  from  the  main  returns,  even  when  the  water 
is  very  hot.  These  pipes  are  practically  open  to  the  atmosphere  above 
the  water-seal.  A  tee  is  put  into  them  below  the  basement  floor,  but 
above  the  water-level — W  L  in  diagram.  To  this  tee  is  attached  an 
automatic  air-valve,  which  is  set  to  remain  open  so  that  air  may  pass  in 
or  out,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  "  air-binding  "  in  the  coils  between 
the  steam  as  it  enters  through  the  graduating- valves  and  the  water  in  the 
seals.  It  may,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  be  called  a  breathing-hole, 
and  would  be  allowed  to  remain  open,  and  without  an  automatically 
or  thermostatically  regulated  valve,  were  it  not  for  the  possibility  of  the 
regulating-valve  (R  V)  failing  for  a  moment,  and  allowing  a  high  pres- 
sure to  pass  into  the  ''returns"  and  raise  the  water.  But  as  an  extra 
precaution  against  that,  a  check-valve  has  been  introduced  into  each 
water-seal  at  the  bottom,  a£  shown,  opening  inward,  to  let  the  water  of 
condensation  which  runs  down  the  riser  return-pipe  enter  the  main 
return-pipe,  a  slight  accumulation  of  head  of  water  in  the  riser-return 
furnishing  the  power. 

The  course  of  the  steam,  then,  is  from  the  pipe  M  D  R  P  through 
the  coils  to  the  pipe  MRP,  the  latter  of  which  it  is  never  intended  to 
reach  as  steam,  the  condensed  water  only  running  into  it,  and  falling  by 
gravity  into  the  water-line  within  it. 

At  the  upper  end  of  the  coils  is  \hegraduating-valve,  Figure  74,  in  the 
position  shown ;  it  is  a  finely-regulated  valve,  with  small  opening  about 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  long,  tapered  spindle  filling  the 
hole.  On  the  spindle  where  it  passes  through  the  nut  of  the  valve  is  a 
coarse  thread,  one  revolution  of  which  will  withdraw  the  spindle  from 
the  hole.  To  the  handle  of  the  spindle  is  attached  a  stop-arm,  which 
engages  stop-pins  on  a  graduated  circle.  The  full  opening  of  the  valve 
has  been  found  by  experiment,  and  is  regulated  to  pass  only  the  amount 
of  steam  that  the  radiator  is  capable  of  condensing  in  an  atmosphere  of 
70°  Fah.,  leaving  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  coils  which  is  always  to 
remain  cold  to  prevent  an  overflow  of  the  steam  into  the  return-pipe. 
Any  quantity  of  steam  between  the  maximum  and  minimum  is  then 
secured  by  bringing  the  stop-arm  to  the  desired  graduation  on  the 
circle. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


To  provide  for  changes  of 
temperature  of  the  outside  cur- 
rent, and  consequently  greater 
condensation  within  the  building, 
there  is  a  full  thirty  per  cent,  of 
coil-surface  which  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  bring  into  use,  except  in  a 
cold  room  when  first  turning  on 
the  steam,  or  in  extremely  cold 
weather. 

The  two  6-inch  main  rising 
lines  are  relieved  in  the  usual  way 
by  i  YZ -inch  pipes,  and  every  down 
line  is  a  relief  for  the  main  at  the 
top  of  the  house. 

The  main  return-pipe  termin- 
ates in  a  receiving-tank,  R  T. 
Before  entering  the  tank  it  rises 
to  a  height  just  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  water-seals  (S'). 
The  object  of  this  is  to  seal  the 
lower  ends  of  the  relief-pipes  from 
the  (dowri)  steam-risers  M  D  R  P, 
the  pressure  within  the  risers  being 
only  tu'o  pounds,  minus  loss  by 
condensation  and  friction.  This 
prevents  the  "  blowing  through  " 
of  the  main  returns  to  the  tank, 
and  keeps  all  pipes  sealed.  From 
the  receiving-tank  the  water  of 
condensation  is  pumped  into  the 
boilers  by  the  pump  P. 

The  object  of  selecting  two 
pounds  as  the  normal  pressure 


in    the 


FIGURE  70. 

apparatus    is 


three-fold  : 


(i)    With    the    ordinary    height    of    cellar    (eight  feet),    water-seals 


166 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


deep     enough    for    a    high    pressure    could    not    be    obtained    and 
have    any     factor     for    safety ;    ( 2 )    the   exhaust-steam     from    the 

hydraulic  pumping  -  en- 
gines enters  the  heating- 
pipes  in  winter  and  cold 
weather,  and  is  there  all 
condensed  ;  and  (3)  grad- 
uated valves  are  more 
accurate  and  less  liable  to 
"  cut,"  with  a  difference 
of  about  two  pounds  pres- 
sure between  the  steam 
supply  -  pipes  and  the 
coils,  or,  in  other  words, 
between  two  pounds  and  . 
atmosphere,  than  with 
higher  pressures. 

The  pumps  P3  in 
Figures  69  and  70  are 
duplex  compound  pumps, 
with  high-pressure  steam- 
cylinders  12  inches  in 
diameter,  and  low-pres- 
sure cylinders  i8}4  inches 
in  diameter,  with  1 2-inch 
water  -  plungers,  forcing 
against  a  head  of  water  of 
58  pounds  in  repose  and 
62  pounds  when  in  action. 
The  pressure  carried 
in  the  boilers  B'  (high- 
pressure  boilers)  is  60 
FIGURE  7i.  pounds.  The  terminal 

pressure  in  the  low-pressure  cylinders  of  the  pump  is  about  17  pounds, 
and  the  back-pressure  2%  pounds.     From  these  pumps  the  exhaust 


MISCELLANEOUS.  167 

steam  goes  to  a  tank,  F  T.  Here  the  water  of  condensation  from 
the  cylinders  of  the  pumps,  or  water  held  in  suspension,  and  grease 
are  separated  from  the  steam,  which  is  then  passed  to  the  heating- 
pipes,  as  shown,  in  the  winter  time,  or  to  the  roof-condenser  C  in  the 
summer. 

As  the  exhaust-steam  from  the  high-pressure  boilers  and  pumps, 
after  passing  through  the  heating  system,  and  being  condensed  therein, 
must  reach  the  receiving-tank  as  condensed  water,  the  pump  P'  for  the 
high-pressure  boilers  also  takes  suction  from  this  tank.  This  prevents 
the  wasting  of  this  water,  and  is  the  means  of  supplying  the  high-pres- 
sure boilers  with  condensed  water,  which  is  passed  through  the  heater 
tank  H  T  on  its  way  to  the  boilers. 

The  hall-radiators  are  not  on  the  graduating  principle,  but  take 
steam  from  the  lower  main  in  the  old  method.  This  is  shown  at  the 
right  of  the  diagram  in  a  circular  radiator. 

The  main  steam-pipe  from  the  high-pressure  boilers  is  also 
arranged  to  give  steam  to  the  heating  system  through  a  "  pass-by  "  and 
regulating  valve,  shown  near  the  centre  of  the  diagram.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  provide  a  means  for  a  temporary  supply  from  the  high- 
pressure  boilers  should  the  low-pressure  one  be  out  of  order,  or  to  give 
steam  in  the  mornings  and  evenings  of  fall  and  spring,  when  it  is 
desirable  not  to  run  the  low-pressure  boilers  should  the  exhaust-supply 
not  be  sufficient. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  warming  of  this  building  is  the  skylight 
heating.  Over  the  principal  counters,  in  the  centre  of  each  bank,  is  a 
domed  skylight,  24/xi6'  at  the  base,  and  shown  in  section  through  its 
greatest  measurement  in  Figure  72. 

As  the  air  cooled  by  this  glass  and  iron  structure  would  certainly 
fall  upon  the  heads  and  shoulders  of  the  officers  and  clerks  who  were 
underneath  it,  and  whose  desks  were  arranged  with  special  reference  to 
the  light,  it  became  necessary  to  devise  some  method  for  the  warming 
of  the  air  near  where  it  was  cooled,  and  to  prevent,  if  possible,  its  falling. 

To  accomplish  this  and  retain  the  architectural  effect  unmarred, 
the  architect  provided  in  the  main  rafters  of  the  roof  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  3-inch  pipe,  P,  Figure  72,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  simulate  a 


l68  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

rail — or,  perhaps,  more  properly  speaking,  a  cord — of  the  rafters  of  the 
dome.  This  passes,  as  shown,  through  the  roseate,  and  is  bronzed 
to  correspond  with  the  iron -work  of  the  dome,  and  appears  to  be  an 
integral  part  of  the  structure. 

Above  this,  at  C,  further  provisions  for  warming  are  made.  The 
cast-iron  shell-cornice  which  covers  the  structural  iron-work  and  beams 
is  removed  from  the  latter  three  inches,  and  a  coil  of  six  i%-inch 
steam-pipes  is  concealed  in  the  space  thus  formed.  At  the  bottom  an 
opening  or  slot  one  inch  in  width  is  made,  which  extends  all  around, 
but  is  so  arranged,  by  one  member  of  the  cornice  so  overlapping 
another,  as  not  to  be  apparent  from  below.  The  top  of  this  space  is 


J*IANKATTAN  dos. 
MERCHANTS  A 
BANKS 


FIGURE  72. 

also  open  and  a  current  of  air  is  established  which  comes  in  contact 
with  the  pipes  and  is  delivered  warm  in  front  of  the  windows  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  dome. 

These  windows  are  pivoted  to  swing  outward  at  the  bottom,  and 
in  ordinary  cold  weather  are  kept  a  little  open.  This  produces  ventila- 
tion and  a  gentle  outward  current  of  air  in  a  position  where  it  ordi- 
narily will  come  in.  Over  the  directors'  rooms  are  skylights  similarly 
warmed. 

Figure  73  (to  the  left)  shows  skylights  at  the  rear  of  the  banking- 
rooms.  In  this  case  a  3-inch  pipe,  P,  is  also  attached  to  the  skylight- 
rafters  by  a  special  bracket,  and  the  identity  of  the  heating-pipe  is  lost  in 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


169 


the  finish.  At  the  top,  at  C,  is  a  coil  of  eight  i^-inch  pipes,  eighteen 
feet  long,  which  also  assists  to  warm  the  air  in  this  vicinity  as  well 
as  to  warm  the  glass  and  surrounding  iron-work  and  marble  by  direct 
radiation.  The  method  of  warming  under  the  windows  on  the  Wall 
Street  front  is  shown  at  the  right  (Figure  73).  No  air  is  taken  in,  but 
the  warm  air  from  the  coil  is  made  to  pass  up  in  front  of  the  plate-glass 
windows  and  neutralize  the  down  current  from  the  glass,  which  would 
otherwise  fall  on  the  heads  of  the  clerks. 

The  coils  in  skylights  are  not  on  the  "graduated  system,"  but  take 
their  steam  at  full  pressure,  with  their  stop-valves  in  the  cellar  under 
the  engineer's  control. 

Figure  74  shows  the 
graduating-valve  made 
for  this  building.  In 
many  respects  it  is  an 
ordinary  angle-valve,  of 
strong  and  very  accurate 
make.  It  is  so  designed 
that  one  revolution  of 
the  stem  and  handle 
gives  the  maximum  open- 
ing of  the  valve.  The  FIGURE  73. 
"  pitch "  of  the  thread 

on  the  stem  is  six  threads  to  the  inch,  and  the  hole  at  the 
bottom  is  gauged  to  pass  about  the  greatest  quantity  of  steam 
that  the  heater  can  condense.  The  long  taper  of  the  disk  has  a 
three-fold  object :  the  first  is  to  allow  of  drilling  the  hole  through  the 
bottom  of  the  seat  any  size,  to  suit  any  size  heater,  and  still  form  a 
perfect  valve  ;  the  second  is  to  admit  of  considerable  movement  of  the 
handle  and  a  backward  motion  without  a  rapid  increase  of  annular  space- 
between  the  disk  and  the  seat ;  and  the  third  is  to  prevent  a  singing 
noise,  by  gradually  allowing  the  steam  to  expand  through  the  annular 
space,  which  space  increases  in  area  as  it  advances  up  the  cone  of  the 
disk.  Two  stop-pins  are  placed  in  the  graduated  circle,  one  at  O  and 
one  at  the  maximum  opening  of  the  valve,  which  opening  is  determined 


170 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


by  experiment,  and  the  second  pin  put  in.  Should  this  pin  be 
removed  by  any  person  and  the  valve-stem  turned  beyond  it,  the 
fixed  size  of  the  hole  at  the  bottom,  which  is  approximately  correct, 

will  prevent  any  serious  overflow 
of  steam.  The  round  hole,  seven- 
thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, at  the  bottom  of  one  of  these 
valves  was  found  to  pass  thirty-six 
pounds  and  eleven  and  one-half 
ounces  of  steam  in  one  hour,  with 
the  pressure  in  the  pipe  two  and 
one-half  pounds  by  the  steam- 
gauge,  the  lower  end  of  the  pipe- 
coil  into  which  it  flowed  and 
condensed  being  open  to  atmos- 
phere. 

Figure  75  shows  the  tank  used 
in  this  building  for  the  separation 
of  grease  from  the  exhaust  steam 
that  is  turned  into  the  heating- 
mains.  The  steam  enters  through 
the  6-inch  pipe  a  at  the  left,  and 
escapes  through  the  pipe  b  at  the 
right  to  the  heating-main.  The 
large  sectional  area  of  the  tank 
between  the  pipes  results  in  a 
comparatively  slow  motion  of  the 
steam,  giving  the  particles  of 
water,  grease,  etc.,  an  oppor- 
tunity to  fall  into  the  water  u<  in  the 
bottom  of  the  tank,  allowing  com- 
paratively dry  steam  to  escape.  As  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  tank 
will  increase  if  it  is  not  regularly  drawn  away,  the  contrivance  </,  c,  and 
e  is  provided.  The  water  overflows  through  the  bend  c  into  the  trap 
e,  which  is  of  sufficient  depth  to  withstand  the  pressure  within  the  tank 


MISCELLANEOUS.  171 

(from  two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds).  The  short  pipe  is  carried  from 
the  bend  down  into  the  water  for  one-half  its  depth,  as  this  is  supposed 
to  be  the  best  point  at  which  to  draw  off  the  water,  so  as  not  to  take 
oil  from  the  surface  or  dirt  or  heavy  fats  from  the  bottom  of  the  water, 
and  to  prevent  the  stopping  of  the  pipe  by  accidental  accumulations. 


FIGURE  75. 

The  pipe  d  is  put  in  the  top  of  the  bend  to  prevent  the  syphoning 
of  the  water  from  the  tank,  and  is  carried  sufficiently  high  to  be  above 
the  highest  level  of  water  in  the  tank. 

The  pipe  f  is  a  draw-off  pipe,  and  the  pipe  /  runs  to  the  blow- 
off  tank. 


172  STEAM-HEATING    AND   STEAM-FITTING    PROBLEMS. 

The  pipe  e  of  the  trap  should  have  a  valve  in  it  at  any  desirable 
point,  the  object  of  it  being  to  "  choke  "  the  pipe  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  prevent  the  fluctuations  of  pressure  of  exhaust  steam  starting  the 
water  out  of  the  seal. 

The  architect  of  the  building  was  Mr.  W.  Wheeler  Smith,  who  was 
assisted  in  the  engineering  department  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Baldwin,  M.  E. 
The  contractors  were  Messrs.  Bates  &  Johnson,  all  of  New  York. 


THE  BOILERS  IN  THE  MANHATTAN  COMPANY'S  AND 
MERCHANTS'  BANK  BUILDING. 

FIGURES  76,  77,  and  78  show  the  boiler  and  boiler-setting  of  one  of 
four  similar  boilers  lately  set  in  the  Manhattan  Co.'s  and  Merchants'  Bank 
Building,  40  and  42  Wall  Street,  New  York.  The  special  points  about 
these  boilers  are  :  The  quality  of  iron  used,  the  method  of  bracing  both 
head-sheets  and  domes,  and  the  making  of  a  number  of  small  holes 
(3-inch)  through  the  shell  of  the  boiler  under  the  dome  instead  of  cut- 
ting out  a  large  piece,  as  is  usually  done. 

To  the  engineer  or  steam-fitter  the  drawings  convey  a  clear  con- 
ception of  the  manner  of  construction,  but  as  the  specification  from 
which  these  boilers  were  built  was  drawn  with  a  view  to  give  instructions 
to  the  builders  as  well  as  to  secure  the  desired  results  to  the  owners, 
we  quote  from  it  such  parts  as  will  be  of  interest : 

"  To  furnish  and  put  in  place  and  set  according  to  these  specifica- 
tions and  the  plans,  two  low-pressure  multi-tubular  boilers,  each  to  be 
sixteen  feet  in  length  from  head-sheet  to  head-sheet,  by  sixty-six  inches 
in  diameter,  and  each  to  contain  102  3-inch  outside  diameter  charcoal- 
iron  lap-welded  boiler-tubes,  not  less  than  No.  12  wire-gauge  in  thick- 
ness, and 

"Domes. — Each  boiler  to  have  a  dome  on  the  top  of  the  shell  thirty- 
six  inches  in  diameter  by  thirty-six  inches  high,  measuring  from  the 
centre  of  the  top  of  dome.  At  the  front  end  of  each  boiler  the  shell  is 
to  extend  before  the  head-sheet  twenty-one  inches,  making  the  extreme 
length  of  a  boiler  seventeen  feet  and  nine  inches. 

"Manholes. — Each  boiler  will  have  a  manhole,  with  its  plate,  etc.,  in 
the  top  of  the  shell  back  of  the  dome,  the  manholes  to  be  15x11  inches, 
and  be  set  with  their  longest  diameters  across  the  shells. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


173 


"  Handholes. — Each  boiler  will  have  two  handholes,  with  their 
plates,  etc.,  one  placed  in  each  head  jn  the  position  shown,  and  of  the. 
sizes  shown. 


FIGURE  76. 


"  Iron. — The  shells  and  head-sheets  and  domes  of  said  boilers  to  be 
made  throughout  of  "  extra  flange  fire-box  iron,"  bearing  the  stamp  and 


174 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


name  of  some  reputable  manufacturers  of  boiler-plates,  that  will  be  satis- 
factory to  the  architect  or  his  representative,  and  every  plate  or  part  of 

a  plate  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  these  boil- 
ers will  be  so  marked 
in  one  or  more  places 
— thus,  "  Extra  Flange 
Fire  -  Box  Iron,"  to- 
gether with  the  usual 
stamp  (initials  or  other- 
wise) used  to  designate 
the  makers. 

"  Samples. — If  in  the 
opinion  of  the  architect 
samples  of  the  different 
plates  should  be  re- 
quired for  testing,  the 
contractor  must  furnish 
them  from  each  or  any 
number  of  the  plates, 
and  must  prepare  them 
for  the  testing-machine 
in  the  usual  manner, 
and  must  pay  the  cost 
of  testing  them  and  for 
the  report  of  the  ex- 
pert who  performs  the 
tests.  And  should  the 
plates  prove  to  be  a 
lower  quality  than  that 
above  stated  and 
called  for,  the  con- 
tractor is  bound  to 
furnish  other  plates 
until  the  standard  of 
quality  is  reached  and 
secured. 

"  Thickness.  —  The 
shells  or  cylindrical  courses  01  these  boilers  are  to  be  full  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  to  have  but  one  longitudinal  seam  in  each 
course,  the  seam  to  be  in  the  upper  quarter  segment  of  each  course. 


FIGURE  77. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


"Heads. — The  head-sheets  of  said  boilers  to  be  made  of  ^-inch 
thick  iron  of  the  quality  before  stated,  the  angles  of  whose  flanges  will 
be  bent  to  a  radius  not  less  than  2^  inches,  and  which  must  not  show 
flaw  or  blemish  after  being  turned,  and  which  must  be  carefully  annealed 
before  being  punched. 

"Domes. — The  domes  of  said  boilers  to  be  made  of  the  quality  of 
iron  before  stated,  and  to  be  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  with 
^2 -inch  thick  heads,  and  flanged  with  not  less  than  2-inch  radius  in 
the  angles  of  the.  flanges, 
and  braced  in  the  manner 
shown,  for  which   a   de- 
tailed drawing  will  be  fur- 
nished. 

"Bracing.  —  The 
head-sheets  of  said  boil- 
ers will  be  braced  in  the 
manner  known  as  "flat 
gusset  -  bracing,"  each 
head  having  five  braces, 
a  detailed  drawing  of 
which  will  be  furnished. 

"  Seams. — All  longi- 
tudinal seams  in  the 
boilers  must  be  double 
riveted,  and  the  rivets  so 
spaced  from  centre  to 
centre,  and  also  be  of 
such  size  and  diameter  as 
to  give  seventy  per  cent, 
of  the  strength  of  the  solid 
plates  of  the  boilers. 

"The  side  seams  in 
the  dome  must  be  double 

riveted,  and  the  seam  uniting  the  dome  to  the  shell  must  be  double 
riveted. 

"  The  seams  that  unite  the  courses  to  each  other  and  the  head  seams 
are  to  be  single-riveted  seams  (presumably  24 -inch  rivets,  2^  inches 
pitch,  is  the  most  desirable,  while  in  the  longitudinal  seams  two  rows 
of  24  -inch  rivets,  2^  inches  pitch,  and  placed  in  the  manner  known  as 
"  square  riveting,"  will  give  the  result  required  above).  The  double 
riveting  in  the  dome-flange  must  be  also  square  riveting,  the  flange  being 


FIGURE  78. 
HALF  ELEVATION  AND  SECTION  ON  LINE  E-F. 


176  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

4 

turned  with  sufficient  depth  to  place  them  in  this  manner,  and  the 
"  pitch  "  of  the  rivets  may  be  reduced  to  2^  inches,  so  as  to  get  the 
strength  of  the  inner  row  of  rivets  in  their  length  more  nearly  equal  to 
the  strength  of  the  metal  in  the  dome,  but  not  close  enough  to  each 
other  to  reduce  the  strength  of  the  remaining  parts  of  the  shell  between 
the  rivet-holes  to  below  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  solid  plates. 

"Rivets. — All  rivets  to  be  of  a  grade  and  quality  of  iron  acceptable 
to  the  architect,  to  whose  satisfaction  they  are  to  be  tested  as  to  their 
tensile  and  shearing  strength  by  the  contractor,  and  at  his  expense, 
if  called  on  to  do  so. 

"  Riveting. — Machine-driven  rivets  are  to  be  used  in  all  seams  of  the 
boilers  in  which  it  is  possible  to  drive  them,  and  hand-driven  rivets  will 
be  only  accepted  or  allowed  in  places  where  machine  rivets  cannot  be 
driven,  or  are  impracticable,  and  will  then  only  be  accepted  when  they 
are  driven  in  a  manner  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  architect  or  his 
inspector. 

"  Calking. — All  the  seams  of  the  boilers  are  to  be  properly  chipped 
and  calked,  the  calking  to  be  what  is  known  as  "  Connery's  calking." 
No  split  calking  will  be  allowed. 

"A  furrow  from  the  chipping-chisels  or  calking-tools,  or  from  any 
cause,  in  any  plate  or  on  any  part  of  the  boilers,  or  the  breaking  or 
splitting  of  a  hole  from  the  use  of  the  drift-pin  or  otherwise,  or  a  crack 
or  flaw  or  burn  in  any  plate  or  head,  will  be  deemed  a  sufficient  cause 
for  the  total  rejection  of  the  boiler  or  boilers  in  which  any  of  the  above 
is  found  to  exist. 

"  Drift-Pin. — The  use  of  a  drift-pin  in  the  construction  of  these 
boilers  or  in  the  construction  of  any  one  of  them,  either  in  the  "  fitting- 
up  "  of  them  or  in  the  preparation  of  the  holes  for  the  rivets,  will  be 
the  cause  of  the  rejection  of  all  the  boilers. 

"  Holes  under  the  Domes. — The  shells  of  said  boilers  underneath  the 
domes  are  not  to  be  cut  out  in  one  large  piece,  but  to  be  a  number  of 
3-inch  holes  aggregating  not  less  than  100  square  inches,  and  laid  out 
in  the  manner  required,  for  which  a  detailed  drawing  will  be  furnished. 
Special  attention  must  be  paid  to  this,  for  should  the  shell  be  cut  out 
in  a  manner  unsatisfactory  it  will  be  considered  a  cause  for  rejection. 

"  Tubes. — The  boiler-tubes  are  to  be  set  as  shown  in  the  detail 
drawings,  and  are  to  have  i%  inches  between  the  tubes  in  the  vertical 
rows,  and  one  inch  in  the  horizontal  row,  and  be  otherwise  set  as 
shown. 

"  Expanding. — They  are  to  be  expanded  with  Dudgeon  expanders, 
with  the  extension  beyond  the  heads  of  uniform  length,  and  not  broken 


MISCELLANEOUS.  177 

or  ragged  by  a  chipping-chisel,  but  cut  with  some  proper  tool  at  the 
end  last  expanded,  or,  better  still,  to  be  of  the  proper  length  before 
they  are  inserted. 

"  Lugs. — Each  boiler  is  to  be  furnished  with  four  (and  no  more) 
cast-iron  lugs  or  brackets  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  same  in  the 
brick-work.  These  lugs  are  to  project  from  the  sides  of  the  boiler  12 
inches,  and  are  to  have  a  projection  below  the  plane  of  the  bracket,  as 
shown,  with  three  ^3 -inch  rivets  in  this  lower  projection  and  the  usual 
complement  above. 

"Manholes. — The  manhole  castings  are  to  be  extra  heavy,  and 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  architect,  who  reserves  the  right  to  have 
them  made  from  designs  of  his  own  if  they  are  not  acceptable  or 
sufficiently  heavy  in  his  opinion. 

"  Handholes. — The  handholes  to  be  furnished  with  plates,  bolts,  and 
guard,  the  guard  on  rear  handhole  to  be  "  turtled-back,"  with  a 
projection  around  the  nut  to  protect  it  from  the  fire. 

"  Flanges. — The  pipe-flanges  on  the  domes  to  be  of  the  size  marked 
on  drawings  and  in  the  positions  marked,  and  to  be  riveted  to  the 
domes  and  chipped  and  calked  on  the  inside,  and  set  true  with  the  axis 
of  the  boilers. 

"  Flanges  on  Shells. — A  2^ -inch  flange  to  be  placed  at  the  rear  end 
of  the  rear  course  of  the  shell  at  the  bottom  side,  and  to  be  set  true,  and 
riveted  and  chipped  and  calked.  A  2-inch  pipe-hole  to  be  drilled  and 
tapped  into  the  rear  head  and  i^-inch  in  the  front  head  where  shown. 

"  Two  of  the  boilers  are  of  the  size  stated  above,  and  are  intended 
only  for  heating  at  a  low  pressure.  The  other  two  are  each  1 1  feet 
long  by  48  inches  in  diameter,  with  seventy-two  2^ -inch  tubes,  and  are 
for  high-pressure  steam  to  run  the  compound  pumping-engines." 


STEAM-HEATING    APPARATUS    IN    THE    MUTUAL    LIFE 
INSURANCE  COMPANY'S  BUILDING  ON  BROADWAY. 

THE  accompanying  sketches  illustrate  the  principle  involved  in  the- 
new  heating  apparatus  lately  put  into  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance 
Company's  old  building,  140  Broadway,  corner  of  Liberty  Street,  by 
the  Steam-Heating  Division  of  the  New  York  Steam  Company. 

Figure  79  is  a  diagram  illustrating  the  principle  involved,  and 
Figure  80  is  a  plan  of  that  part  of  the  ground  floor  of  the  building  given 
up  to  engineering  purposes. 


178  STEAM-HEATING   AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

There  are  three  horizontal  boilers,  each  54  inches  in  diameter  by 
1 6  feet  long,  containing  seventy- four  3-inch  tubes,  from  which  steam  is 
taken  for  heating  and  power  purposes.  The  steam  for  power  supplies 
two  pumping-engines  for  hydraulic-elevator  purposes,  and  two  ordinary 
engines  for  power  and  electric-lighting  purposes.  The  pumps  are  one 
duplex  compound  non-condensing  Worthington  engine,  with  1 2-inch 
high-pressure  steam-cylinders,  1 8)4 -inch  low-pressure  cylinders,  and 
lo-inch  water-plungers.  The  other  is  a  simple  duplex,  1 8-inch  steam- 
cylinders  by  lo-inch  water-plungers,  with  lo-inch  stroke.  These 
pumps  when  in  use  run  intermittently,  their  duty  being  to  keep  the 
pressure  tanks  of  the  elevator  service  supplied  with  water,  and  are 
governed  and  controlled  automatically  by  the  height  of  the  water  in 
the  pressure  tanks.  The  intermittent  pumping  supply  to  the  tanks 
produces  an  irregular  action  in  the  use  of  steam,  and  consequently  gives 
an  intermittent  supply  of  exhaust  steam.  In  the  summer  time  this 
exhaust  steam,  of  course,  is  allowed  to  escape  by  the  roof-pipe,  but  in 
times  when  heat  is  required  on  the  building  it  is  allowed  to  pass  into 
the  heating-pipes  and  there  be  condensed.  The  supply  of  exhaust 
steam  from  the  other  engines  is  also  allowed  to  pass  into  the  heating- 
pipes,  though  in  their  case  the  flow  is  constant. 

The  object  to  be  accomplished  now  is  to  condense  all  the  exhaust 
steam  in  the  heating-pipes  so  as  to  save  its  heat ;  but  at  the  same  time 
it  becomes  necessary  to  provide  means  of  keeping  a  constant  supply  of 
say  two  pounds  per  square  inch  in  the  heating-pipes,  whether  the 
exhaust  steam  is  sufficient  to  do  it  or  not  at  all  times,  and  to  make  up 
any  deficiency  there  may  be,  either  from  lack  of  volume  or  the 
pumping-engines  remaining  idle  for  any  time. 

To  accomplish  this,  direct  connections  are  made  between  the 
boilers  and  the  heating-mains,  the  connections  being  controlled 
automatically. 

By  the  aid  of  the  diagram,  Figure  79,  this  may  be  made  plain  ;  it 
is  best  to  trace  the  steam  from  the  boilers 'through  the  two  different 
courses  by  which  it  reaches  the  heating-pipes. 

To  this  end  steam  is  taken  through  the  front  steam-connections  of 
the  domes  and  supplied  to  the  "  high-pressure  steam-pipe,"  shown  in 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


I79 


both  figures.  Thence  it  is  supplied  to  the  pumping-engines,  E  P, 
returning  through  the  "  exhaust  pipe  "  to  the  tank  E  T — /.  e.,  exhaust 
tank — in  which  any  grease  is  separated  from  it  in  the  manner  hereafter 
described,  and  in  which  steam  is  stored  to  a  certain  extent  ;  the  tank 
being  a  reservoir  and  equalizing-pressure  tank  to  prevent  a  sudden 


FIGURE  79. 

or  material  increase  of  pressure  when  the  pumps  suddenly  start  up,  and 
to  have  a  supply  to  draw  from  when  they  are  idle  for  a  few  moments. 

The  pressure  from  this  tank  passes  into  the  heating-pipes  through 
the  swinging  check-valve  /  and  the  stop-valve  C,  thence  to  the  "  main 
steam-pipe  "  as  shown. 


l8o  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS, 

The  other  method  of  a  constant  supply,  whether  the  pumps  and 
engines  are  running  or  not,  is  from  the  connections  on  the  back  of  the 
domes  to  the  pressure-regulating  valve  P  R,  and  thence  through  the 
valve  b  to  the  "main  steam-pipe."  When  reducing  through  a  large 
regulating-valve  from  high-pressure  steam  to  very  low  pressures  noise 
sometimes  follows,  and  frequently  irregularities  of  pressure.  To  prevent 
this,  the  secondary  pressure-regulator  P  R8  is  introduced,  and  the  valve 
b  is  closed.  Then  the  steam  is  reduced,  say  from  eighty  to  twenty  pounds 
through  the  first  valve,  and  from  twenty  to  two  through  the  second  one, 
insuring  a  constant  and  more  regular  pressure  in  the  steam- mains. 
Should  the  supply  from  the  pumps  increase  the  pressure  in  the  tank 
(E  T)  to  above  two  pounds,  the  regulating-valve  admits  no  more  live 
steam  ;  but  should  the  pressure  in  the  tank  fall  much  below  two 
pounds — say  one-quarter  of  a  pound — the  regulating-valves  open  and 
the  pressure  is  maintained. 

The  tank  E  T,  as  mentioned  above,  is  used  for  separating  grease 
carried  from  the  engines  or  pumps,  and  is  sometimes  called  a  "  skim- 
ming-tank "  for  that  reason.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  kept  about  one- 
third  full  of  water.  The  steam  blows  down  in  one  6-inch  pipe,  and 
escapes  through  the  other,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  Figure  79.  In 
passing  through  the  large  tank  the  velocity  becomes  almost  nil,  and 
separation  goes  on  by  gravity  as  well  as  by  being  blown  against 
the  surface  of  the  water.  To  draw  the  constantly  increasing  water  from 
the  tank,  a  bent  syphon  is  introduced  into  the  tank,  the  top  of  the  bend 
being  at  the  water-line  of  the  tank,  and  the  open  end  extending  into  the 
water  about  six  inches.  This  causes  the  overflow  of  any  excess  of  water 
from  the  tank,  and  draws  it  at  a  distance  below  where  floating  oil  will  be, 
and  sufficiently  above  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  prevent  sediment  from 
running  off  in  the  same  way.  The  water  drawn  away  in  this  manner  is. 
sufficiently  free  from  oil  to  return  it  to  the  receiving-tank,  but  the  usual 
method  is  to  run  it  into  the  sewer  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  getting 
oil  into  the  boilers  this  way.  To  prevent  the  syphoning  of  the  water 
from  the  tank  through  the  bent  pipe  described  above,  a  pipe  is  carried 
from  the  highest  part  of  the  bend  to  a  distance,  say  one  foot  above  the 
water.  This  lets  the  air  or  steam  pressure  into  the  pipe  and  destroys. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


FIGURE  80. 


182  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

the  power  to  syphon.  At  the  bottom  of  the  tank  is  a  blow-off  pipe  to 
be  used  for  drawing  off  the  water  and  grease  or  oil. 

The  check-valve  /  prevents  the  pressure  from  the  pipes  passing 
back  into  the  tank  should  the  regulating-valves  get  out  of  order,  and  in 
such  case,  should  the  pumps  or  engines  be  running,  the  back-pressure 
valve  B  P  V  opens  by  an  excess  of  one  pound  pressure,  and  allows  the 
exhaust  steam  to  escape  to  the  roof  for  the  time  being. 

The  small  pump  F  P  returns  the  water  of  condensation  to  the 
boiler,  accomplishing  this  automatically  by  the  aid  of  the  pump-gov- 
ernor P  G.  The  tank  H  T  is  a  feed-water  heater,  and  the  one  B  T  is  a 
"  blow-off  tank."  The  same  pipes  can  be  traced  in  plan  in  Figure  80, 
and  this  figure  also  shows  the  elevator  service,  with  the  "  Hinckley " 
pressure-tanks. 

The  principle  of  piping  involved  in  the  heating  apparatus  is  to 
carry  all  the  steam  to  mains  at  the  ceiling  of  the  upper  story,  and  run 
around  the  building,  feeding  downward.  Where  the  first  "  riser  "  is 
taken  from  the  steam-main,  the  "  return-pipe  "  commences  in  the  cellar 
and  runs  in  the  same  way  as  the  steam-pipe,  though  fully  100  feet  below 
it,  increasing  in  size  as  the  main  steam-pipe  decreases,  and  ending  by 
making  a  circuit  of  the  building,  throwing  steam  and  water  always  in 
the  same  direction. 

The  designer  of  the  apparatus  was  H.  M.  Smith,  Division  Engineer 
of  the  New  York  Steam  Company. 


THE  SETTING  OF  BOILERS. 

FIGURES  81,  82,  83,  and  84  show  the  setting  of  the  Tribune  Building 
boilers.  It  shows  the  difficulties  attending  boiler-setting  in  localities 
where  superficial  area  of  ground  is  worth  as  much  as  it  is  in  lower  New 
York,  and  the  trouble  of  securing  enough  of  it  at  any  price  is  very  great. 

In  this  case,  in  Spruce  Street  (the  street  being  narrow),  it  was  nec- 
essary to  go  considerably  beyond  the  curb-line  to  even  get  two  boilers 
side  by  side  outside  the  line  of  the  columns  of  that  part  of  the  building ; 
but  to  complicate  matters  there  was  no  way  of  reaching  the  chimneys 


MISCELLANEOUS.  183 

except  underground  ;  and  in  consequence  of  being  limited  in  length — 
there  being  four  boilers,  two  in  each  battery,  the  batteries  being  set 
facing  each  other  so  that  one  fire-room  will  do  for  both,  the  flues 
could  not  be  carried  down  at  the  rear  ends  of  the  boilers,  even  were 
there  room,  not  considering  other  objections. 


OOOOOOOOOO 
OOOOOOOOOO 
OOOOOOOOOO 
OOOOOOOOOO 

oooooooo 
oooooo 


FIGURE  81.— FRONT. 

It  was  decided  to  make  the  middle  wall  of  each  set  of  boilers  suffi- 
ciently thick  to  have  two  flues,  each  12x36  inches,  leaving  two  courses  of 
fire-brick  between  the  furnaces  and  the  flues.  The  downward  flues 
from  each  set  of  two  boilers  are  carried  separately  for  about  ten  feet  of 
their  length  after  all  the  turns  are  passed,  and  then  connect  with  chim- 
neys 28x36  inches  in  the  clear  and  182  feet  high. 


i84 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


It  was  suggested  that  the  hot  draught,  after  leaving  the  boilers  in 
its  passage  through  the  downward  flues,  in  consideration  of  the  great 
heat  which  was  expected  at  this  point  between  the  two  furnaces,  would 
have  a  perceptible  effect  on  the  draught  of  the  main  chimney-shaft,  but 
the  preponderance  is  so  greatly  in  favor  of  the  chimneys  that  no  trouble 


FIGURE  82.— REAR. 


has  ever  been  experienced,  and  the  engineer  in  charge  cites,  as  an 
evidence  of  the  intensity  of  the  draught,  that  in  moderate  winter 
weather  he  has  been  able  to  keep  the  whole  building  (new  part  and  old 
part)  warm  with  but  one  of  the  boilers  ;  which  would  indicate  that  a 
square  foot  of  the  boiler-surface  makes  steam  for  about  fifteen  square 
feet  of  radiator  surface. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


FIGURE  83.— HORIZONTAL  SECTIONS. 


1 86 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


Where  the  weight  of  the  centre  wall  rests  on  the  arches  of  the 
underground  flues,  a  very  heavy  casting  corresponding  to  the  plan  of 
the  Hues  is  introduced  to  distribute  the  weight. 


Another  novelty  which  was  here  introduced  by  the  superintending 
engineer  is  heavy  bars  of  iron  reaching  the  whole  length  of  the  walls 


MISCELLANEOUS.  187 

under  the  boiler-lugs.  At  the  front  pair  of  lugs  the  boiler  is  allowed1 
to  rest  heavily  on  the  irons,  but  the  rear  lugs  are  set  on  rollers,  the 
object  being  to  prevent  the  side  walls  from  cracking.  The  front  lugs 
are  the  neutral  point,  and,  being  close  to  the  front,  the  expansion  for- 
ward is  only  nominal,  but  the  thrust  of  the  boiler  backward,  which  may 
reach  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  is  thus  provided  for. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  one-quarter  or  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
cannot  make  much  difference  on  the  length  of  boiler-walls,  but  when 
no  provision  is  made  for  it,  and  a  crack  is  once  started  by  the  thrust, 
though  the  boiler  may  draw  back  the  brick-work  cannot,  and  the  sand 
and  mortar  sifts  down  into  the  crack  and  between  where  the  boiler 
touches,  so  that  when  the  boiler  expands  again  it  will  open  the  crack 
further,  and  thus  go  on. 

The  boilers  are  four  in  number  and  fifteen  feet  long  between  the 
heads,  with  an  extension  of  sixteen  inches  for  the  front  connection. 
The  two  new  ones  are  made  of  steel  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  in  the 
shells  and  one-half  an  inch  in  the  heads. 


WARMING    AND   VENTILATION    OF  THE   WEST  PRESBY- 
TERIAN CHURCH  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

ON  the  north  side  of  West  Forty-second  Street,  and  overlooking 
Reservoir  Park,  is  the  church  known  as  the  West  Presbyterian.  It  is 
seventy-eight  feet  front  by  a  depth  of  140  feet,  including  the  lecture- 
room.  The  auditorium  proper,  outside  the  chancel,  is  seventy-two  feet 
square,  and  the  height  to  the  stained-glass  skylight  (which  is  thirty-five 
feet  square),  in  the  centre,  is  sixty-two  feet  from  the  floor.  The  roof- 
trusses  are  concealed  within  four  arches,  whose  centres  are  fifty-four 
feet  high,  and  which  intersect  each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give 
the  auditorium  and  galleries  the  effect  of  being  under  a  dome.  The 
number  of  persons  that  can  be  seated  comfortably  is  1,200.  It  has 
recently  been  refitted  and  altered,  and  provided  with  the  system  of 
heating  and  ventilation  shown  in  our  illustrations,  under  the  plans  and 
direction  of  Messrs.  J.  C.  Cady  &  Co.,  architects,  of  New  York. 


i88 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


Originally  the  building  was  without  wall-flues.  To  remedy  this 
defect  advantage  was  taken  of  the  pilasters,  or  continuations  downward 
of  the  truss-arches  (see  plan).  They  were  widened  on  their  faces  below 


FIGURE  85. 

the  galleries  until  a  flue  12x16  inches  was  formed  on  each  side  of  them. 
Above  the  galleries  these  flues  are  carried  against  the  walls,  and  in  the 
corners  formed  by  the  arches  and  the  roof,  and  terminate  in  galvanized- 


J.C.C^pY>co. 

— -. vAKCMrrf 

KlEvt/Yo«l  — 


FIGURE  86. 


190 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


iron  flues  in  the  raised  part  of  the  roof,  where  they  are  collected  into 
two  large  ventilating-tops,  one  for  each  side  of  the  building. 

The  number  of  flues  thus  formed  is  twelve,  each  i2ffxi6*  in  cross- 
section,  making  sixteen 
square  feet  of  outlets,  not 
taking  into  consideration 
five  12-inch  round  flues,  one 
from  each  of  the  five  chan- 
deliers under  the  skylight. 

In  each  flue  is  a  Bunsen 
gas  -  burner,  surrounded 
with  a  sheet-iron  tube,  to 
produce  rarefaction  of  the 
air  at  times  when  steam  is 
not  used  in  the  building. 
These  flues  are  marked  V  R 
on  the  auditorium  plan 
(Figure  86),  and  are  seen 
in  section  in  the  interior 

view>  Figure  85>  The  prin~ 

cipal  opening  into  each  is 
through  20*  x  24*  registers 
in  the  gallery  ceiling,  but 
the  spaces  underneath  floors 
of  the  pews  on  the  sides 
are  also  connected  with 
them,  registers  being  placed 
in  the  risers  of  the  steps  in 
the  cross-aisles. 

As  a  further  means  of 
warming  these  flues,  and 
also  for  getting  rid  of 
the  products  of  combustion  from  the  clusters  of  gas-jets,  each  cluster 
is  hooded,  as  shown  in  Figure  88,  and  the  pipe  from  the  top  of  the  hood 
carried  into  the  nearest  flue. 


FIGURE  87. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  igZ 

Fresh  air  for  the  building  is  taken  from  the  roof  through  a  shaft 
6'x6',  which  has  been  constructed  through  the  room  back  of  the  pas- 
tor's study.  This  is  a  brick  shaft  which  runs  to  the  basement,  and  from 
which  the  horizontal  galvanized-iron  air-ducts  take  their  supply.  Three 
lines  of  indirect  radiators,  with  their  air-ducts,  are  used  in  the  basement 
under  the  three  principal  aisles.  To  avoid  registers  in  the  floors  and  to 
secure  a  finer  and  more  subdivided  admission  of  air  and  heat,  the  floor 
underneath  the  pews  (but  not  in  the  aisles)  was  raised  about  five 
inches. 

Through  wire  gratings,  H,  in  the  risers  of  the  steps  thus  formed, 
the  air  is  admitted  to  the  church,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  Figure  86. 


FIGURE  88. 

Below  are  clusters  of  steam-coils,  four  to  each  aisle,  which  are 
divided  in  the  middle  so  as  to  give  a  separate  supply  to  each  side 
of  the  same  aisle.  These  radiators  are  inclosed  in  galvanized-iron 
cases  and  arranged  so  that  hot  air  or  cold  air,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two, 
can  be  passed  into  the  church  at  pleasure. 

Figure  87  is  an  enlarged  detail  of  the  heaters,  C,  in  Figure  85. 
Fresh  air  from  the  air-duct  passes  through  the  pipe  A  to  the  coil-casing. 
When  it  is  desirable  to  pass  all  the  air  through  the  radiator  the 
dampers  or  valves  D  are  in  the  position  shown  to  the  left  of  the  cut,  but 
when  cold  air  only  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  church  the  dampers  are 


192  STEAM-HEATING    AND    STEAM-FITTING   PROBLEMS. 

arranged  as  shown  at  the  right.  To  secure  different  degrees  of  heat 
the  dampers  in  the  pipes  A  and  A'  are  both  partly  opened,  allowing 
part  of  the  air  to  go  through  the  coil  and  part  directly  into  the  pipe  B. 

At  two  places  within  the  auditorium,  and  near  the  side  doors  lead- 
ing from  the  vestibule,  all  the  "  switch-valves  "  or  dampers  in  the  air- 
pipes  can  be  operated.  The  rods  d  </,  Figure  87,  connect  with  the 
damper-levers,  as  shown,  and  in  turn  connect,  by  bevel  gearing,  with  a 
shaft  which  extends  across  the  front  of  the  basement.  This  shaft,  in 
turn,  connects  with  an  upright  which  extends  through  the  church  floor 
and  is  topped  with  a  hand-wheel.  By  the  manipulation  of  this 
wheel  the  attendant  can  admit  more  or  less  cold  air  and  keep  the 
church  at  a  constant  temperature. 

The  steam-heating  and  ventilating  contractors  were  Messrs.  Baker, 
Smith  &  Co.,  New  York,  and  the  architects  Messrs.  J.  C.  Cady  &  Co., 
of  Trinity  Buildings,  New  York. 


PRINCIPLE     OF     HEATING-APPARATUS,     FINE     ART 
EXHIBITION   BUILDING,   COPENHAGEN. 

THE  following  are  two  systems  of  warming  proposed  by  A.  B. 
Reck,  of  Copenhagen. 

Figure  89  represents  the  principles  of  an  apparatus  stated  to  be  in 
use  at  the  Royal  Fine  Art  Exhibition  Building,  Copenhagen.  It  is  so 
arranged  as  to  work  with  live  steam  from  the  boiler  or  the  exhaust 
from  electric-light  engines,  or  a  mixture  of  both.  In  the  figure, 
F  is  a  pump  to  return  the  water  of  condensation  to  the  boiler.  D 
represents  the  engine,  some  of  the  power  of  which  operates  the  pump. 
Steam  leaves  the  boiler  through  valve  V,  passing  through  the  engine, 
thence  through  the  valve  a'  to  the  heating  pipes,  which  of  course  have 
a  pressure  but  little  above  atmosphere  in  them.  Should  the  quantity  of 
steam  passed  by  the  engine  be  greater  than  the  requirements  of  the 
heating  apparatus,  the  back-pressure  valve  T  opens,  allowing  the 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


193 


excess  to  escape  to  atmosphere.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  should  the 
engine  be  performing  small  duty,  and  passing  little  exhaust  steam,  the 
regulating-valve  R  on  the  boiler  opens  automatically  and  passes  the 
extra  quantity  of  steam  necessary  to  maintain  the  desired  fullness  in 
the  heating  pipes  through  the  stop-valve  a2. 

Figure  90  shows  an  apparatus  the  principal  claim  for  which  is 
the  exhaust  steam  from  engines  run  at  night  for  lighting  purposes  can 
be  used  to  heat  water  and  be  made  to  retain  the  heat  in  a  non- 
conducting coil-case  for  use  next  day  without  running  the  engine,  and 
also  that  the  water  can  be  circulated  by  a  pump  throughout  the  system, 
while  exhaust  steam  cannot  be  carried  to  such  distances.  In  many 


FIGURE  89. 

respects  our  remarks  on  Figure  89  will  apply  here,  the  same  letters 
applying  to  similar  parts.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  pipe  I  conveys 
the  steam — live  or  exhaust — to  the  coil  S  within  a  water-tank  (P),  the 
condensation  being  returned  by  the  pump  F.  The  other  pump,  C, 
circulates  the  water  from  the  tank  P  to  the  smaller  reservoirs  O 
throughout  the  house,  storing  hot  water  in  the  same  and  bringing  all 
the  water  to  as  high  a  temperature  as  possible  during  the  night,  or  at. 
such  times  as  the  engine  is  running.  When  the  cases  which  inclose 
the  heat-reservoirs  O  O  are  closed  at  their  tops,  no  passage  of  air 


Ip4  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

occurs,  hence  there  is  only  a  comparatively  small  loss  of  heat ;    but 
where  heat  is  required   the  registers  are  opened,  and  the  warm  air 


FIGURE  90. 


circulates  freely.     Other  points  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  reader  by 
a  study  of  the  diagram. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


195 


WARMING  AND  VENTILATING  THE  OPERA  HOUSE  AT 
OGDENSBURG. 

THE  building,  though  known  by  the  name  of  "Town  Hall,"  is,  in 
reality,  the  municipal  building,  jail,  town  hall,  and  opera  house 
combined. 

The  auditorium  of  the  theatre  is  60  feet  wide  by  68  feet  long  and 
50  feet  high,  with  two  galleries,  and  will  seat  976  persons. 

The  stage  at  the  curtain  is  35  feet  wide  and  46  feet  deep,  with  a 
height  of  60  feet. 

The  system  of  warming  is  by  direct  and  indirect  radiation 
combined,  and  the  ventilation  is  produced  by  a  vacuum  movement ; 


FlGURE  91. 

aspirating-shafts  exhausting  the  air  at  the  levels  of  the  floors  and 
ceilings  of  the  main  floor  and  galleries. 

In  cold  weather  the  aspirating-shafts  are  assisted  by  the  natural 
condition  produced  by  the  dense  cold  air  forcing  its  way  to  the  inlet- 
ducts. 

The  warmed  air  in  winter  and  the  fresh  air  in  summer  is  admitted 
at  144  places  through  the  auditorium  floor  (see  arrows,  Figure  92). 
These  openings  are  nine  inches  long  by  three  inches  wide,  with 
register-faces  set  into  them,  having  an  aggregate  area  of  twenty 
square  feet  of  openings. 

The  fresh  air  is  taken  in  at  the  side  of  the  basement  (marked  air 
on  basement  plan)  and  drawn  down  through  a  short  shaft ;  from  thence 
it  is  delivered  to  the  large  boxed  coils. 


196 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


The  warm  air  from  these  coils  is  then  passed  between  every  third 
joist  (which  radiate  and  slope  out  and  upward  from  the  stage)  and  is 
delivered  through  the  risers  of  the  steps  upon  which  the  seats  are 
fastened. 

The  space  between  the  joists  through  which  the  warmed  air  is 
drawn  is  lined  with  a  heavy  tin  casing,  flanged  through  the  risers, 


FIGURE  92. 


before  the  register-faces  are  inserted.  A  detail  of  how  this  is  done 
can  be  seen  in  the  perspective  drawing  (Figure  94). 

The  direct  radiation  is  by  long  coils  placed  along  the  outside  walls 
and  under  the  windows  of  the  main  floor  and  galleries,  to  prevent 
downward  cold  currents  at  the  walls. 

The  aspirating-shafts  have  an  area  in  cross-section  of  thirty-seven 
square  feet.  The  shaft  c  is  warmed  by  a  box-coil,  placed  just  above 
the  level  of  the  first  gallery,  the  coil  being  made  to  fit  the  space,  so 
that  the  air  in  its  upward  movement  would  all  have  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  hot  pipes.  The  shaft  on  the  other  side  of  the  building  is 
warmed  by  the  smoke-pipe  from  the  boilers  passing  through  its  whole 
length. 

The  obstruction  to  the  shafts  caused  by  the  heating  furnaces 
reduces  their  capacity  to  about  thirty  square  feet.  Six  registers, 
21x29  inches,  open  into  each  of  these  shafts,  giving  an  area,  when 
allowance  is  made  for  the  fret-work,  of  about  thirty-five  square 
feet. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


I97 


We  are  told  the  velocity  of  the  air  at  the  registers  will  average  420 
feet  per  minute,  which  must  be  equivalent  to  the  moving  of  the  air  once 
every  fourteen  minutes,  or  about  fourteen  cubic  feet  of  air  per  person 
per  minute. 

In  addition  to  the  aspirating-shafts,  there  is  in  the  centre  of  the 
ceiling,  over  the  chandelier,  an  arrangement  of  nicely-disguised  open- 
ings, aggregating  fifty  square  feet.  The  air  in  its  escape  through 
these  openings  is  controlled  above  the  ceiling  by  trap-doors  operated 
from  the  wings. 

The  stage  is  warmed  entirely  by  direct  radiation,  the  surface  being 
very  large  and  divided  into  sections,  with  a  view  to  keeping  the  stage 
and  the  auditorium  at  as  near  the  same  temperature  as  possible. 


FIGURE  Q3._SECONn  FLOOR. 


Each  private  box  has  its  own  warm-air  register,  and  there  are  two 
large  direct  radiators  under  the  front  of  the  stage,  the  air  circulating 
from  the  auditorium  in  and  out  through  fret-work. 

The  Town  Hall,  64x48x34  feet,  on  the  second  floor,  is  warmed  by 
three  direct  radiators  and  by  four  indirect  radiators,  with  the  air 
delivered  in  six  places. 

The  four  principal  offices  on  the  first  floor  are  warmed  by  indirect 
radiation,  and  the  rest  of  the  building,  including  halls  and  jail,  by 
direct  radiation. 

Steam  is  furnished  by  three  of  the  "Nason"  sectional  steam- 
generators,  two  of  them  being  always  sufficient  for  the  building,  with 
one  in  reserve. 


198 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


The  apparatus  is  what  is  known  as  a  "gravity  return,"  and  will 
work  at  all  pressures. 

The  size  of  the  mains  is  shown  in  the  basement  plan  (Figure  91), 
with  the  warming  of  the  green-room  and  dressing-rooms,  which  is  done 


FIGURE  94.— DETAIL    ILLUSTRATING  METHOD  OF    ADMITTING   WARM  AIR  TO 
AUDITORIUM. 

by  overhead  pipes.    Other  details  may  be  gleaned  from  a  study  of  the 
diagrams. 

The  architect  of  the  building  was   G.  A.    Schellenger,   of    New 
York 


SYSTEMS  OF  HEATING  HOUSES  IN  GERMANY  AND 

AUSTRIA. 

IN  the  greater  part  of  Germany  and  Austria  the  system  of  heating 
the  houses  is,  to  a  great  extent,  insufficient,  uneconomical,  and  incon- 
venient, being,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  mere  modified  and  improved  form 
of  the  method  of  the  ancient  tribes  of  heating  large  stones  or  other 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


I99 


FIGURE  95. 


large  bodies  in  their  fires  and  allowing  them  to  cool  off  in  the  rooms  or 
huts,  thus  heating  the  air.  The  stoves  almost  universally  employed  in 
most  private,  and  even  public,  houses  are  of  porcelain,  more  or  less 
ornamented,  of  rectangular  cross-section,  and  quite  high,  containing  in 
them  a  zig-zag  flue,  the  fire-place  being  at  the  bottom.  The  fire  heats 
the  long  flue  in  the  stove  itself,  which  then  heats 
the  air  of  the  room. 

The  disadvantages  are  numerous.  The 
walls  of  the  stoves,  being  made  of  one  of  the 
best  non-conducting  materials,  require  a  great 
amount  of  heat,  and  for  quite  a  long  time, 
before  they  conduct  the  heat  through  them  to 
the  air  of  the  rooms,  so  that  most  of  the  heat  of 
the  walls  passes  through  the  flues  into  the 
chimney,  and,  of  course,  is  lost.  Owing  to 
the  zig-zag  form  of  the  flues,  the  draught  at  starting  is  very 
poor,  and  the  stoves,  being  made  of  many  separate  pieces,  fre- 
quently contain  many  cracks,  so  that  the  room  is  often  filled  with 
smoke  and  disagreeable  gases  ;  but  as  this  is  a  daily  occurrence  one  is 

expected  to  become  accus- 
tomed to  it.  It  is  still  more 
disagreeable,  as  the  coal  used 
resembles  our  bituminous 
coal  and  gives  off  much  more 
disagreeable  gases  if  not 
completely  burned. 

A  further  disadvantage 
is  that  the  fire  has  to  be 
lighted  every  morning,  and 
that  it  requires  several  hours, 

sometimes,  before  the  non-conducting  material  of  the  stove  is 
sufficiently  heated  to  warm  the  room.  For  a  man  in  business 
this  is  especially  inconvenient,  as  he  either  has  to  be  aroused  very 
early  in  the  morning  by  the  .servant  starting  the  fire  and  by 
the  smoke,  or  else  the  room  is  cold  for  the  few  hours  in  the 


FIGURE  96. 


200 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


morning  while  he  is  using  it,  and  when  he  is  about  to  leave  it, 
it  will  be  beginning  to  become  warm — or,  in  other  words,  it  is  cold 
while  he  uses  it  and  warm  in  his  absence. 
Every  room  has  to  have  its  own  stove. 
Hallways  and  bath-rooms  (when  there 
are  such)  are  seldom  heated,  and  there- 
fore have  the  temperature  of  out-doors, 
so  that  one  frequently  takes  cold  in  going 
from  one  room  to  another.  All  doors 
must  be  kept  closed,  thus  preventing  all 
ventilation  by  means  of  hallways,  stairs, 
etc.  The  fire  being  allowed  to  go  out 
as  soon  as  the  walls  of  the  stove  are  warm, 
there  is  no  ventilation  by  means  of  the 
draught  of  the  fire. 

The  heat  in  the  walls  of  the  stove 
after  one  firing  is  said  to  be  sufficient 
for  the  day.  The  heat  of  the  inside  of 
the  flues,  which  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  outside,  is  lost  in  the  chimney 
after  the  fire  is  out,  as  there  are  always 
enough  cracks  or  openings  to  allow  a 
slight  draught. 

Another  objection  is  that  the  stoves 
take  up  much  room  and  require  a  \ery 
solid  foundation. 

American  stoves  are  sometimes  used, 
but  apparently  are  not  liked,  as  the 
"regulirung"  (draught-regulation)  seems 
to  be  far  beyond  the  conception  of  the 
average  German  servant. 

Another  method,  known  as  "Hauber's  Patent,"  has  been  intro- 
duced in  many  places,  especially  in  Munich,  in  the  last  few  years, 
and  seems  to  be,  both  theoretically  and  practically,  one  of  the  cheapest 
and  most  economical  methods. 


FIGURE  97. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  2OI 

Before  explaining  it,  it  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  most  furnaces  or  stoves  the  fresh  coal  is  thrown  over  the 
hot  walls,  and  is  therefore  heated  in  a  flame  containing  little  or 
no  free  oxygen.  The  consequence  is  that  large  quantities  of  combusti- 
ble gases,  rich  in  heating  qualities,  and  a  large  amount  of  black  smoke 
containing  unburnt  carbon,  escape  unused  into  the  chimney,  carrying 
with  them  heat,  thus  representing  a  great  waste.  If  these  gases  could 
foe  burned  while  hot  there  would  be  considerable  saving,  besides  avoid- 
ing the  disagreeable  black  smoke.  This  could  be  done  if  the 'fresh 
coals  could  be  placed  under  the  hot  ones,  so  that  the  gases  given  off 
by  them  are  burnt  while  passing  through  the  hot  coals  and  while 
the  gases  contain  free  oxygen.  This  is  the  principle  of  the  system 
to  be  described  and  seems  to  be  accomplished. 

A  single  stove,  or  "element,"  as  it  is  called,  is  shown  in  about 
one-twentieth  size  in  the  accompanying  cut  (Figure  95).  It  consists  of 
a  cast-iron  cylinder  C,  open  at  the  top  and  containing  at  the  bottom 
the  contrivance  d> ',  which  is  like  an  inverted  frustum  of  a  cone,  perfor- 
ated so  as  to  allow  the  air  to  enter,  but  preventing  the  coal  from  falling 
out.  D  is  the  flue  fastened  to  the  wall  and  ceiling,  forming  a  greal 
portion  of  the  heating  surface ;  b  b  is  the  fixed  cast-iron  base.  The 
cylinder  C  fits  loosely  on  the  base  b  b  and  at  e,  so  that  it  can  be  taken 
away  and  replaced  by  another  without  requiring  any  fitting  other  than 
that  the  opening  e  should  be  opposite  that  in  the  flue  D.  The 
"elements"  or  cylinders  are  filled  to  the  top  with  coal  in  the  coal-bin, 
and  carried  by  means  of  a  handle  at  the  top  into  the  rooms,  thus  serv- 
ing at  the  same  time  as  coal-bucket  and  stove.  A  small  charge  of 
wood  and  paper  or  shavings  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  coal.  When 
the  room  is  to  be  heated  it  is  only  necessary  to  light  the  paper  and  put 
the  lid  on  somewhat  slanted,  so  as  to  allow  the  draught  to  enter  at  the 
top  until  the  coal  is  ignited,  after  which  the  lid  is  closed  and  the 
draught  at  the  bottom  regulated  according  to  the  amount  of  heat 
required. 

As  is  easily  seen,  the  gases  from  the  fresh  coals  will  have  to  pass 
over  the  hot  ones,  thus  burning  them  completely,  and  thereby  avoiding 
smoke  and  utilizing  all  the  heat  of  the  coal.  No  attention  is  necessary 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


until  all  the  coal  is  consumed,  when  the  cylinder  is  replaced  by  a  filled 
one. 

The  joint  at  e  need  not  fit  tightly,  as  the  section  at  that  point  is 

small  as  compared  with  that 
at  the  flue,  so  that  there  is  a 
greater  velocity  of  the  gases  at 
that  point.  Even  if  the  stove  is 
placed  as  much  as  half  an  inch 
from  the  opening  no  gases  will 
come  out  at  that  point  if  the 
draught  is  good. 

The  advantages  are  mani- 
fold. It  is  very  economical, 
requiring,  as  it  is  claimed,  only 
twenty-five  to  sixty  per  cent,  of 
the  amount  of  coal  used  in  the 
ordinary  systems.  There  is  no 
smoke  or  incomplete  combus- 
tion, and  therefore  no  such  loss 
of  heating  material.  There  is 
very  little  attention  required, 
and  no  dust  from  coal  or  ashes 
in  the  rooms.  It  is  very  easily 
regulated  by  a  valve  at  the 
base.  The  stoves,  being 
simple  in  construction,  are  com- 
paratively cheap. 

This  system  is  used  prin- 
cipally    for     large     buildings, 
shops,  schools,  hospitals,    etc., 
where    it    seems    to    be    very 
satisfactory.     It    is    also     fre- 
quently used  for  drying-rooms  where  very  high  temperature  is  required. 
For  heating  a  large  building,  a  so-called  "battery"  of  stoves  is 
placed  in  an  apartment  in  the  cellar,  from  which  the  hot  air  passes  by 


MISCELLANEOUS.  2OJ 

means  of  pipes  to  the  rooms.  Such  a  chamber  is  shown  in  sections  and 
plan,  in  Figures  96,  97,  and  98. 

The  following  data  were  given  to  the  writer  by  the  Austrian  Com- 
pany :  A  charge  of  coal  weighs  about  10  kilog.  (22  Ibs  )  and  burns  from 
six  to  fifteen  hours,  according  to  the  amount  of  heat  required.  On  the 
average  two  fillings  a  day  are  required.  This,  at  the  rate  of  $4  per  ton, 
would  be  about  four  cents  per  charge.  For  heating  and  ventil- 
ating, in  which  the  air  of  rooms  is  renewed  three  times  per  hour, 
one  element  with  bituminous  coal  will  be  required  for  every  85  to  90 
cubic  metres  of  space  heated,  and  for  brown  coal,  60  cubic  metres ; 
for  hallways,  one  element  for  100  to  120  cubic  metres. 

The  cost  of  an  element  in  Austria  is  about  $12  (30  fl.)  ;  for  heating 
by  means  of  chambers  in  the  cellars,  about  $20  to  $24  per  element, 
including  all  fixtures,  but  not  the  erection. 


THE  STEAM-PIPES  IN  NEW  YORK  STREETS. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  wrftes  :  "  As  you  must  be  aware,  there  is  a 
great  difference  in  matters  of  detail  between  the  two  steam  companies 
of  New  York  City,  an  approximate  sketch  of  each  of  which  systems  I 
submit — Figure  A  being  the  American  and  Figure  B  the  New  York 
Steam  Co.  In  general,  both  send  out  steam  through  wrought-iron 
mains,  and  the  New  York  Co.  is  receiving  back  a  large  quantity  of  its. 
condensed  water  (all  that  is  not  used  in  the  engines)  through  a  parallel 
main,  and  the  American  company  has  parallel  mains  through  which 
it  intends  to  receive  back  what  water  it  can  when  the  company  is  in 
working  order. 

"  System  A  has  three  pipes,  two  (i  and  2)  being  the  conveying  pipes, 
and  one  (3)  the  return  pipe,  but  in  many  places  the  conveying  pipes 
are  supplemented  by  distributing  pipes,  which  start  from  the  flanges  (/) 
at  the  junction  and  run  parallel  with  the  other  pipes,  while  in  other 
places  the  conveying  pipe  does  duty  for  both  purposes.  Pipes  i  and  2 
are  connected  with  the  8-branch  cross  (junction)  with  a  stop-valve  c> 
and  an  expansion-joint  d,  the  expansion  of  the  metal  of  the  pipe  which 


204 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


takes  place  between  any  two  street-corners  being  forced  within  the  slip- 
joints.     On  top  of  the  steam-junction  J  is  placed  a  smaller  juncture  (J) 


FIG-.  B. 


FIGURE  99. 


for  the  return  water-pipes,  to  and  from  which  run  the  return-pipes  (3), 
with  stop-valves  and  expansion-joints  also.  Now,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  if  not  in  all,  the  return-pipes  where  they  leave  the  "return  "  June- 


MISCELLANEOUS.  205 

tion,  just  beyond  the  expansion-joints,  drop  a  certain  distance,  to  get 
down  to  the  position  shown  in  the  elevation — elbows  and  nipples,  or 
short  pieces  being  used  to  make  the  necessary  offsets.  It  is  here  the 
principal  trouble  seems  to  be,  with  the  offsets  and  expansion-joints,, 
though  it  may  be  with  the  expansion-joints  of  the  steam-pipes  as  well. 
When  expansion  takes  place,  the  thrust  of  the  long  pipe,  caused 
by  expansion  when  heated,  is  against  the  lower  elbow,  and  the 
resistance  from  the  pressure  within  the  pipe  is  against  the  upper 
elbow,  the  thrust  not  being  in  a  right  line,  but  angular,  causing  the 
brass  of  the  slip-joint  to  bind  on  the  sides  of  the  sleeve.  The  sketch  C 
will  give  an  idea  of  this  in  a  better  manner  than  words  can.  The 
thrust  of  the  pipe  is  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  a',  and  the  resistance 
from  the  pressure  and  from  the  friction  of  the  gland  is  in  the  direction, 
of  the  arrow  b' ,  which  causes  the  offset  to  assume  the  position  shown, 
binding  the  brass  at  c  and  c'  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  move  it,  the  result  being  the  fracturing  of  pipes  or  elbows. 
The  dotted  lines  e'  shows  the  bent  pipes  (offsets)  which  were 
substituted  in  places  for  the  elbows  and  piece  df . 

"  With  the  New  York  Steam  Company  the  result  is  different.  They 
do  not  attempt  to  force  the  expansion  from  street-corner  to  street-corner 
(the  difference  in  length  for  200  yards  being  about  15  inches).  They 
put  in  an  expansion-joint  every  75  feet  or  so  and  anchor  the  pipe  in 
the  middle  of  the  distance  between  the  joints — a  conception  of  which 
you  may  be  able  to  get  from  the  diagram  B  :  a,  is  the  junction  ;  b,  the 
stop-valves  ;  c,  the  expansion-joint  ;  d dd  d,  the  anchorage.  If  the  dis- 
tance from  the  anchorage  to  the  expansion-joint  is  37^  feet,  the  great- 
est movement  on  the  diaphragm  of  the  compensator  cannot  exceed  one 
inch  for  a  range  of  temperature  from  zero  to  the  temperature  -of  100 
pounds  of  steam.  The  return-pipe  is  run  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
steam-pipe. 

"  The  duplicate  system  used  by  the  American  company  presents 
features  not  covered  by  the  New  York  company's  method,  and  might 
be  used  as  an  argument  of  their  inventions  not  to  do  things  cheaply,  but  it 
is  questionable  if  what  can  be  gained  in  the  way  of  preventing  interrup- 
tions will  warrant  the  expense  and  complication  where  the  street  blocks 
are  as  short  as  in  the  lower  districts." 


206 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


Later,  a  committee  appointed  to  look  into  the  cause  of  the  fre- 
quent bursting  of  the  American  Company's  pipes  decided  that  the 
principal  reason  for  giving  way  was  the  water-hammer,  caused  by  steam 
meeting  water  held  in  depressions  of  the  pipe.  Pipes  that  were  rup- 
tured in  their  lengths,  having  bursts  similar  in  appearance  to  frost  bursts, 
were  tested  at  their  remaining  sound  parts  and  found  to  stand  a  pres- 
sure of  about  1,100  pounds  per  square  inch,  from  which  some  estimate 
may  be  formed  of  the  violence  of  the  blow  that  may  be  given  in  a  four- 
inch  pipe — under  the  proper  conditions — by  a  pressure  of  about  60 
pounds  per  square  inch. 


SOME    DETAILS    OF    STEAM    AND    VENTILATING    APPA- 
RATUS AS  USED  ON  THE  CONTINENT. 

WE  are  indebted  to  "  Hygiene  des  Habitations,"  a  pamphlet  pub- 
lished by  MM.  Geneste,  Herscher  et  Cie,  of  Paris,  for  the  accompanying 
details  of  apparatus  used  by  them  in  the  warming  and  ventilating  of 
buildings  in  France  and  other  continental  European  countries.  They 


FIGURES  TOO  AND  101. 

use  water-tube  boilers,  as  they  consider  them  less  liable  to  disastrous 
explosion,  and  claim  an  advantage  for  them  on  account  of  the  shorter 
time  it  takes  to  get  up  steam  over  boilers  which  contain  a  large  quantity 
of  water.  From  the  generator  they  carry  the  steam  to  the  highest  part 
of  the  premises,  and  .supply  it  downward  for  distribution  to  the  coils. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


207 


Sufficient  pressure  is  carried  in  the  boilers  to  work  pumps  for  the 
return  of  the  water  of  condensation  from  the  receiving  tanks  and  to 
work  engines  to  drive  the  fans. 

Before  carrying  the  steam  to  the  top  of  the  house  it  is  reduced  to 
a  very  low  pressure  by  the  use  of  a  "regulating- valve,"  which  is  shown 
in  section  and  elevation  at  Figures  100  and  101.  To  any  one 
acquainted  with  the  regulating  or  reducing  valves  used  in  this  country 
the  cuts  speak  for  themselves  and  require  no  explanation  from  us 


FIGURES  102  AND  103. 

From  the  point  where  steam  is  first  carried  to  the  top  of  the  house 
its  movement  and  the  movement  of  the  water  is  in  the  same  direction — 
that  is  to  say,  in  the  direction  of  gravity. 

They  use  air-purging  cocks  on  the  heaters — automatic  air-vents — 
on  the  differential  expansion  principle,  in  which  a  volute  coil  of  two 
metals  open  and  close  the  outlet.  For  steam-traps — purgeur  h 
contrapoids — they  use  a  counterbalanced  metal  float,  which  is  solid,  or 
nearly  so,  and  which  is  but  partly  balanced  by  a  counterpoise  that  is 
always  above  the  water-level,  but  which  leaves  preponderance  enough 
in  favor  of  the  part  that  will  be  submerged  when  the  water  of  conden- 
sation rises  to  have  it  act  as  a  float,  the  object  presumably  being  to  get 
a  float  that  cannot  be  collapsed  or  filled  with  water  under  pressure. 

The  class  of  extended  surface-heaters  used  is  shown  in  Figures  102 
and  103  in  part  section  and  elevation.  For  heating  ordinary  rooms 
they  recommend  direct  radiation  at  the  cold  points  of  the  room,  and 
consider  Figure  104  a  good  arrangement,  and  say:  "Place  the  radi- 
ating surfaces  with  the  extensions  downward  in  the  allayings  of  the 


208 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


windows,  the  fresh  air  being  let  in  by  an  aperture  contrived  in  the 
allaying  itself."  The  upper  part  of  the  radiator  is  for  direct  heating 
only,  and  the  lower  part  is  for  warming  the  incoming  air. 


Figures  105  and  106  show  the  arrangement  of  a  coil  for  hot-water 
heating  and  the  means  of  admitting  air  behind  it,  but  not  in  contact  with 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


209 


it,  the  air  of  the  room  which  circulates   through   the   heater   and   is 
warmed  thereby  mixing  with  the  cooler  (entering)  air  as  shown. 


> 


FIGURE  105. 


It  will  be  noticed  by  a  study  of  the  figures  that  the  hot-water  coils 
are  in  a  continuous  circuit,  and  that  by  the  turning  of  the  three-way 


210  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

cock  the  water  is  made  to  circulate  through  the  coils  or  past  them,  as 
desired. 

In  forcing   or  exhausting   air  by  mechanical   means   two   differ- 


ent classes  of  fans  are  used.     The  one  is  the  ordinary  centrifugal  fan 
(L.  Ser  system),  and  the  other  "  helicoidal "  (Figure  107),  or  what  is 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


sometimes  called  the  "  propeller  "  principle  in  this  country.  This  fan  is 
used  when  large  quantities  of  air  with  very  high  pressures  is  required, 
and  is  considered  ample  for  usual  premises. 

Figure  108  shows  a  small  fan  of  this  kind,  called  a  hydro-ventilator, 
it  being  driven  by  a  small  water-motor,  and  usually  used  as  a  supple- 


mentary fan  at  some  part  of  a  building  where  the  local  currents  want 
assistance,  the  trouble  and  annoyance  due  to  belts  and  most  other 
means  of  transmitting  power  being  largely  overcome  by  the  water- 
motor,  which  requires  only  a  supply  and  a  waste  pipe. 


MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS. 


APPLYING  TRAPS  TO  GRAVITY  STEAM-APPARATUS. 

Q.  HEREWITH  I  send  you  a  sketch  (Figure  109)  of  the  two  boilers 
in  our  heating-apparatus,  showing  the  manner  the  steam-pipe  A  leaves 
both  boilers  and  the  point  at  which  the  return-pipes  b  b  and  the  main 
return-pipe  B  enter  the  boilers  again.  The  apparatus  does  not  return 
the  water  of  condensation  properly  at  all  times,  and  I  am  considering 


FIGURE  109. 

the  question  of  applying  a  return-trap,  but  I  wish  to  do  it  in  such  a 
manner  that  I  may  return  either  by  gravity  or  by  the  trap.  What  way 
would  you  suggest  as  the  best  and  simplest,  or  what  is  the  usual  method 
of  doing  it  ? 

A.  We  do  not  know  that  the  trade  has  any  fixed  method  for  apply- 
ing a  trap  to  a  gravity  apparatus. 

In  your  case  we  would  cut  the  return-pipe  (B)  at  C,  and  introduce 
a  stop-valve  with  a  tee  on  each  side  of  it,  as  shown  by  our  alteration  in 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS.  213 

your  drawing.  To  these  tees  we  would  attach  stop-valves  E  and  D,  and 
to  the  valve  D  a  receiver.  From  this  receiver  then  run  the  usual  pipe 
P  to  the  trap,  as  shown  ;  then  from  the  trap  take  the  usual  discharge- 
pipe  G,  and  instead  of  making  extra  holes  in  the  boiler-heads,  return  it 
through  the  valve  and  tee  E  to  the  main  return-pipe  again.  To  operate 
the  apparatus  by  the  trap  alone,  close  the  valve  C,  open  the  two 
valves  E  and  D,  and  operate  the  trap  in  the  usual  manner. 

It  may  be  well  for  us  to  say — though  it  may  be  already  known  to 
our  inquirer — that  the  pipe  H  which  supplies  live  steam  to  the  trap 
must  be  taken  from  the  domes  of  the  boilers  and  not  from  the  main 
steam-pipe. 


EXPANSION  OF  BRASS  PIPE  AND  IRON  PIPE. 

Q.  WILL  you  kindly  inform  a  lead-pipe  plumber  what  the  expan- 
sion is  of  brass  pipe  through  which  hot  water  is  passed — also,  is  it  greater 
or  less  than  for  iron  pipe  ? 

A.  The  expansion  of  brass  is  greater  than  of  iron  pipe  for  the 
same  number  of  degrees  warmed.  It  will  vary  slightly  with  different 
compositions  of  brass,  but  -nnfonr  of  the  lenStn  of  tne  pipe  mav  be 
taken  as  the  mean  of  its  expansion  or  contraction  of  each  degree 
Fahrenheit  it  is  warmed  or  cooled  between  32°  and  212°  Fah.,  while 
wrought-iron  expands  or  contracts  Tg0ioo0  part  of  its  length  for  the 
same  conditions. 

Example  for  brass  pipe  100  feet  long  warmed  from  40°  to  180° 
Fah.:  100'  X  .00001  X  140°  =  0.14'  (or  1.68  inches)  for  the  amount 
which  the  100  feet  of  brass  pipe  expands. 


CONNECTING   STEAM   AND    RETURN    RISERS   AT  THEIR 

TOPS. 

Q.  IN  looking  over  the  "  Thermus "  articles  I  find  No.  IX.  is 
devoted  to  the  question  of  connecting  steam  and  return  risers  by  cir- 
culation-pipes at  their  tops.  I  would  like  very  much  to  know  what 


214  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

advantages  there  are  in  the  use  of  such  pipes  in  a  single  return  system. 
I  can  readily  understand  why  they  should  not  be  applied  to  the  separate 
return  system,  but  can  see  no  special  use  for  them  in  any  case. 

A.  Imagine  a  rising  line,  composed  of  a  single  steam-pipe 
and  a  single  return-pipe,  unconnected  at  the  top,  which  will 
supply  steam  to  .and  bring  water  from  the  heaters  of  a  vertical  line  in 
a  building  three  or  four  stories  in  height,  the  heating  apparatus  being 
a  closed  one — that  is,  a  gravity-return  or  a  direct  trap-return.  If,  now, 
all  the  heaters  on  this  line  happen  to  be  closed  at  the  same  time — a 
not  unusual  thing  in  the  early  fall  or  late  spring  weather — the  pressure 
from  the  main  return-pipe  will  allow  the  water  to  "back  up  "  within  the 
vertical  return- pipe  to  a  height  of  about  2^  feet  for  each  pound  of 
pressure  per  square  inch  the  boiler  may  have  on  it.  If  the  boiler  has 
forty  pounds  of  steam  up,  this  is  equivalent  to  sending  up  the  column 
in  the  return-pipe  ninety  feet  to  the  five  or  six  stories  of  an  ordinary 
building.  If,  now,  some  one  on  the  lower  story  or  any  story  below  the 
fifth,  turns  on  their  steam,  they  establish  a  steam  circuit  between  the 
steam  and  return  risers,  and  all  the  water  above  the  junction  of  the 
radiator  so  turned  on  within  the  vertical  return-pipe  has  to  fall  or  come 
down  past  the  end  of  the  hot  circuit  thus  established.  This  water  will 
condense  the  steam  that  thus  passes  in  its  fall  and  cause  water-hammer 
and  noise. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  connecting  top  of  rising  lines  is,  it  pre- 
vents water  from  "backing  up"  into  the  lines  when  the  heaters  are 
shut  off  that  is  required  in  the  boiler,  and  in  pipe  or  sectional  boilers, 
or  any  boiler  of  small  water  capacity,  this  is  a  serious  matter.  In  many 
buildings  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  so  connect  lines,  but  in  all  apart- 
ment-houses or  dwelling-houses  with  closed  circuits  it  will  be  found  to 
be  of  advantage.  When  the  lines  are  so  connected  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  passes  into  the  return  and  holds  the  water  down  at  all  times. 

The  idea  that  this  will  prevent  circulation  within  heaters  is  erro- 
neous, for  at  the  most  it  can  have  no  other  effect  than  that  produced  by 
having  steam  on  the  top  radiator  of  a  line. — THERMUS. 


MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS.  215 


POWER  USED  IN  RUNNING  HYDRAULIC  ELEVATORS. 

Q.  THE  question  lately  came  up  between  some  engineers  as  to  the 
proper  method  of  estimating  the  power  that  should  be  used  in  running 
hydraulic  elevators.  For  instance,  A  claims  (the  car  -of  the  elevator 
being  counterbalanced)  that  the  average  load  in  the  car  only  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  connection  with  the  height  it  is  lifted,  mak- 
ing due  allowance  for  resistance  or  friction,  and  to  illustrate  this  he  gives 
the  following  example  :  An  average  of  four  passengers  and  the  opera- 
tor each  trip  lifted  100  feet  in  a  minute,  the  average  weight  of  the  per- 
sons being  150  Ibs.  each,  or  750  Ibs.  x  250  Ibs.,  for  friction,  etc.,  which 
will  be 

i.ooo  Ibs.  X  IPO' 
33.ooo 

or  three-horse  power.  On  the  other  hand,  B  claims  that  the  manimum 
load  must  be  considered  every  time,  and  gives  as  his  reason  the  fact 
that  the  water-cylinder  must  be  filled  every  time  the  car  goes  up,  let  the 
load  be  large  or  small,  and  reasons  this  way  :  Water  to  fill  the  cylin- 
der, say  400  gallons,  admitted  with  a  pressure  due  to  a  loo-foot  head  of 
water,  which  will  be, 

3,000  Ibs.  water  X  IPO' 
33,ooo 

or  nine  horse-power,  to  which  must  be  added  the  loss  of  power  and 
steam  due  to  elevating  the  water  by  common  pumps,  which  work  irreg- 
ularly and  intermittently.  Who  is  correct  ? 

A.  The  whole  amount  of  water  elevated  to  the  tanks  or  lowered  in 
the  cylinder  must  be  taken  into  account  each  trip.  B  takes  the  proper 
view  of  the  matter,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  only  while  the 
elevator  is  going  up  that  the  water  is  being  used  from  the  tank,  and 
that  only  for  one-half  the  time  can  the  water  be  assumed  to  be  used  ; 
therefore,  presumably  4.5  horse-power  is  all  that  is  actually  used,  so  far 
as  the  elevating  of  the  water  is  concerned,  but  probably  as  much  more 
power  is  wasted  ;  so  B's  estimate  of  the  whole  power  to  be  accounted 
for  is  more  nearly  correct. 


2l6  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

MELTING  SNOW  IN  THE  STREETS  BY  STEAM. 

Q.  CAN  snow  be  melted  economically  by  the  use  of  a  steam  con- 
trivance such  as  was  tried  this  winter  in  the  streets  of  New  York  ? 

A.  When  we  find  people  still  anxious  to  demonstrate  that  they  can 
melt  snow  in  the  street  with  less  cost  in  time,  money,  and  muscle  than 
it  can  be  shoveled  and  carted  away  for,  we  are  urged  to  review  this 
question  with  the  hope  of  saving  the  inventor's  money,  and  perhaps 
some  municipal  authorities'  expense,  though  we  are  safe  in  saying  that 
should  the  latter  move  in  this  matter  with  the  caution  they  generally  do 
in  similar  matters,  and  try  their  apparatus  before  they  buy  it,  they  will 
find  that  the  cost  of  fuel  will  always  exceed  the  cost  of  shoveling  and 
carting,  unless,  indeed,  the  city  is  immensely  large  and  on  a  plain, 
without  a  river  or  other  suitable  place  to  dump  snow  in. 

The  heat  necessary  to  warm  and  melt  one  pound  of  snow  from  10 
degrees  above  zero  to  water  at  32  degrees  above  zero  Fahrenheit  is 
164  heat  units.  The  greatest  reasonable  amount  of  heat  to  be  obtained 
and  utilized  by  the  burning  of  one  pound  of  coal  is  10,000  heat  units, 
which  gives  us  -1  %%2°>  or  very  nearly  '61  pounds  of  snow  as  the  greatest 
theoretical  quantity  that  can  be  melted  for  such  a  day  as  January  9, 1886. 
But  in  practice  some  of  this  snow  is  turned  into  vapor,  and  the  heat 
necessary  to  convert  one  pound  of  it  to  vapor  is  1,168  heat  units,  so 
that  if  we  consider  only  one  pound  of  it  is  made  into  vapor,  it  will 
reduce  the  amount  of  snow  melted  to  less  than  54  pounds,  and  each 
additional  pound  of  snow  converted  into  vapor  will  lessen  the  snow 
melted  per  pound  of  coal  an  additional  seven  pounds  ;  so  that,  presuma- 
bly, 30  pounds  of  snow  melted  per  pound  of  coal  is  more  than  actual 
practice  can  ever  obtain  by  any  rapid  method  such  as  by  portable 
machines. 

Taking  the  ordinary  snowfall,  then,  for  the  day  as  equivalent  to 
one  inch  of  rain-water  (an  extraordinarily  low  estimate)  over  a  mile  of 
street  75  feet  between  the  house-lines,  we  have  2,062,500  pounds  of 
snow,  or  68,750  pounds  of  coal,  or  $171.87  worth  of  coal  to  a  mile  of 
street.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  so  far  ;  it  is  only  necessary  to 
consider  that  the  burning  of  34^  tons  of  coal  on  a  mile  of  street  even 
in  a  day  is  a  task  in  itself  not  to  be  considered. 


MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS.  2IJ 

THE  ACTION  OF  ASHES   STREET-FILLINGS  ON  IRON 
PIPES. 

Q.  WILL  you  please  inform  me  what  action,  if  any,  coal-ashes  have 
upon  iron  ?  Can  such  ashes  be  used  as  "  street-filling  "  without  injury 
to  iron,  water,  or  gas  service-pipes  beneath  them  ?  Does  the  lye  from 
said  ashes  injure  the  pipes  ?  With  what  material  can  said  pipes  be 
coated  to  prevent  such  injury  ? 

A.  Coal-ashes  cannot  be  used  for  street-filling  without  injury  to 
iron  pipes  which  are  placed  in  such  material.  Indeed,  moist  coal-ashes 
form  about  the  most  destructive  filling  which  could  be  used.  This 
arises  largely  from  the  presence  of  sulphur  compounds  in  the  ashes, 
and  not  from  any  caustic  or  carbonated  alkalies.  In  some  cases  the 
pipes  are  attacked  in  spots  and  slowly  eaten  through,  while  in  other 
instances  the  entire  pipe  becomes  rotten,  and  converted  into  a  soft 
graphitic  substance. 

Pipes  may  be  covered  on  the  outside  with  pitch,  which  is  some 
protection,  although  probably  of  little  permanent  benefit.  Pipes  are 
sometimes  laid  in  pitch,  in  addition  to  the  coating  of  that  material.  A 
bed  and  covering  of  common  soil  is  also  some  protection. 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    STEAM-COILS    FOR    HEATING    OIL- 
STILLS. 

Q.  I  HAVE  a  number  of  tanks  or  stills  in  which  I  evaporate  a  light 
coal-oil.  Within  these  tanks  are  steam-coils,  to  which  high-pressure 
steam  is  admitted  at  full  boiler  pressure.  We  had  difficulty  in  evap- 
orating— that  is,  our  coils  did  not  work  properly — and  we  were  advised 
to  put  in  new  coils,  with  larger  diameter  pipes,  and  make  a  "  gravity 
return  apparatus"  of  the  whole.  This  we  did,  and  we  cannot  see  that 
we  are  much  better  off  than  before. 

When  we  first  start  up  a  still  it  takes  hours  to  get  it  warm.  We 
are  forced  to  close  the  return-pipe  to  the  boiler  and  blow  our  live  steam 
through  the  coils  in  great  quantities,  wasting  it  and  reducing  the  steam- 
pressure  for  other  purposes.  After  blowing  in  this  way  for  two  or  three 


2l8  STEAM-HEATING   AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

hours  at  short  intervals  the  thing  gets  gradually  to  work,  and  we  have 
little  more  trouble  until  we  have  to  start  again. 

Can  you  suggest  a  remedy  or  give  the  cause  of  such  action  ?  We 
were  informed  that  a  gravity  apparatus  was  a  panacea  for  all  troubles 
in  steam-work.  Why  does  it  not  work  here  ? 

A.  A  gravity  apparatus  is  good  in  its  place,  but  yours  is  evidently 
a  place  for  some  other  system. 

You  ask  if  we  can  suggest  a  remedy  or  give  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
We  will  consider  the  cause  first.  In  "  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings," 
page  171,  the  author  says,  in  speaking  of  steam-kettles  :  "  The  con- 
nections should  be  large  and  the  return-water  pipe  should  not  be  put 
back  into  a  gravity  circulating  apparatus,  but  should  be  carried  away 
by  a  good  steam-trap." 

In  speaking  of  vacuum-pans  that  cook  or  boil  by  steam  heat  passed 
through  spiral  coils,  he  says  :  "  When  a  quantity  of  water  is  to  be 
raised  from  ordinary  temperatures  to  boiling,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  it  will  take  of  steam  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  weight  of  the  water  in 
the  pan  to  raise  it  (the  water)  to  the  boiling  point,  and  that,  when  steam 
is  first  turned  into  the  coils  of  the  pan,  the  shrinkage — /.  e.,  condensa- 
tion of  the  steam — is  enormous,  and  the  result  will  be  the  filling  up  of 
the  space  within  the  coil  with  the  condensed  steam  "  (water  formed). 
He  explains  that  this  is  due  to  the  rapid  loss  of  pressure  of  steam  as  it 
advances  through  the  coil ;  the  loss  of  pressure  being  due  to  the  sudden 
condensation  by  the  steam,  which  is  brought  in  contact  with  a  mass  of 
cold  water.  The  absence  of  pressure,  then,  within  the  coil  allows  the 
"back  "  water  from  the  boiler  or  main  return-pipes  to  rush  up  within 
the  coil,  or  should  this  water  be  held  down  by  a  check-valve  and  be 
prevented  from  backing  up,  the  condensed  steam  will  fall  on  to  the 
check-valve  and  fill  up  within  the  coil,  but  without  sufficient  pressure 
on  its  surface  to  force  it  through  the  check-valve.  He  also  says  :  "  That 
while  the  great  difference  of  temperature  between  the  water  in  the  still 
and  the  steam  in  the  coil  lasts,  the  coil  can  be  warmed  a  comparatively 
short  distance,  leaving  only  the  first  short  part  of  the  coil  that  is  heated 
to  boil  the  water  in  the  kettle  or  still." 

You  evidently  experience  the  trouble  he  anticipates.     At  first  you 


MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS.  2  1$ 

cannot  heat  up.  You  then  "  blow  through  "  and  get  rid  of  the  con- 
densed water  that  you  have  not  sufficient  pressure  behind  to  force  into 
the  boiler,  but  which  will  run  off  against  atmosphere.  This  allows  the 
steam  to  pass  into  the  coil  and  warm  the  water  until  such  time  as  the 
coil  again  fills  up.  Then  you  blow  the  water  out  again,  and  eventually 
the  oil  in  the  stills  warms  up  and  becomes  of  the  same  temperature  as 
the  steam,  after  which  the  condensation  of  the  steam  is  proportional 
only  to  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  maintain  the  evaporation  in  the 
stills. 

We  would  advise  the  use  of  a  pump  operated  by  a  pump-governor 
to  return  the  water  to  the  boiler  by  mechanical  action 


CONVERTING  A  STEAM  APPARATUS  INTO  A  HOT-WATER 
APPARATUS  AND   BACK  AGAIN. 

Q.  I  HAVE  a  steam-warming  apparatus  in  my  house  which  I  con- 
structed myself  from  information  I  obtained  by  reading  the  Sanitary 
Engineer  and  anything  else  I  could  find  on  the  subject  of  house- 
warming. 

It  works  very  well  in  cold  weather,  but  in  ordinary  weather,  in 
spring  and  fall,  and  sometimes  in  winter,  the  house  is  too  warm,  and  I 
am  forced  to  shut  off  some  of  the  coils  to  cool  the  house.  This  does 
not  do  it  properly,  as  the  rooms  into  which  the  heaters  are  closed  may 
then  not  be  warm  enough. 

Can  I  change  or  arrange  a  steam  apparatus  so  that  it  may  be  run 
either  as  a  steam  or  hot-water  apparatus,  and  is  it  advisable  ? 

What  I  wish  to  accomplish  is  to  run  the  apparatus  as  a  hot-water 
one  in  mild  weather,  assuming  I  will  be  able  to  get  sufficient  heat  from 
coils  at  180°  to  150°,  or  even  lower. 

Will  hot  water  for  the  same  temperature  do  as  well  as  steam  ia 
pipes? 

A.  In  some  cases  and  with  some  classes  of  radiators  this  may  be  / 
done. 

With  vertical  or  inclined  tube-radiators,  fastened  at  one  end  to  a 
base,  this  cannot  be  done.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  heaters  are  box-  \ 

coils  or  hollow  castings,  such  as  "Gold  Pin,"  "Compound  Coil,"  or 

I 


220  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

*'  Clogston's  "  indirect,  or  heaters  of  that  class,  or  the  "  Bundy  "  hot- 
Avater,  "  Reed  Three-Column,"  or  direct  heaters  of  these  classes,  it  may 
be  done,  if  the  fitter  understands  the  principles  of  hot- water  heating. 

"What  the  result  will  be  in  any  particular  case  will  always  be  doubt- 
ful until  tried,  but  if  any  person  desires  to  alter  a  steam  apparatus 
already  in  use  he  must  proceed  as  follows  : 

From  the  highest  point  in  the  steam-main  run  a  small  pipe,  say 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  inside  diameter,  to  a  small  tank  on  the  top 
of  the  house.  From  any  other  point  in  the  steam-mains  or  heaters  in 
•which  air  can  lodge  or  collect  run  a  similar  small  pipe  to  the  same 
tank,  or  to  a  larger  pipe  terminating  in  the  tank,  care  being  taken  that 
the  air  cannot  lodge  in  the  pipes,  but  may  free  itself  by  gravitation  into 
the  tank.  These  pipes  are  all  air-vents  when  thus  put  in,  and  will  be 
then  automatic,  but  each  should  have  a  valve  in  it  so  that  it  may  be 
closed  tightly  when  the  apparatus  is  to  be  used  for  steam. 

This  tank  is  best  when  almost  closed  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
should  have  a  capacity  of  at  least  one-twentieth  of  the  cubic  contents 
of  the  whole  apparatus — boiler,  pipes,  and  heaters — to  allow  for  the 
expansion  of  the  water  from  say  40°  to  212°,  or  thereabouts.  When 
starting  the  apparatus  it  must  be  filled  with  cold  water  until  it  shows 
in  this  tank. 

If  there  is  a  check-valve  in  the  return-pipe,  remove  it  so  as  to 
present  no  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  water. 

The  higher  the  tank  can  be  placed  above  the  heaters  the  better, 
as  by  this  means  a  great  pressure  is  maintained  in  the  boiler,  and  a 
wider  limit  secured  before  the  point  of  making  steam  is  reached. 

The  value  of  the  heating-surface  will  be  the  same  for  like  tempera- 
tures maintained  whether  steam  or  hot  water  is  employed.  But  with 
hot  water  and  small  pipes  the  temperature  will  be  much  less  than  with 
steam,  as  the  water  rapidly  parts  with  its  heat  and  has  to  depend  on  its 
circulation  to  the  boiler  for  a  renewed  supply. 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS- 


CONDENSATION   PER    FOOT    OF  STEAM-MAIN. 

Q.  CAN  you  inform  a  reader  of  your  journal  the  amount  of  con- 
densation per  square  foot  of  surface  that  takes  place  in  the  pipes  of 
the  New  York  Steam  Company,  or  in  steam-pipes  properly  laid  under 
ground  ? 

A.  We  are  not  aware  that  the  New  York  Steam  Company,  or  any 
one  for  them,  ever  made  public  the  loss  of  steam  due  to  condensation  in 
their  pipes  in  the  streets.  In  any  case  the  loss  of  heat  will  largely 
depend  on  the  method  of  protecting  the  pipes  from  moisture  in  the 
ground,  and  the  material  they  may  be  covered  with  to  prevent  loss 
of  heat  by  radiation  and  conduction. 

The  Holly  Company,  of  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  states  in  a  circular  that 
in  i, 600  feet  of  3-inch  pipe  protected  in  their  manner  and  laid  on  a 
descending  grade  of  twenty  feet,  with  the  lower  end  trapped  for  water 
and  a  constant  steam-pressure  of  twenty  pounds  maintained  at  each  end 
as  near  as  it  was  possible  to  measure  it,  that  during  twelve  hours  the 
water  condensed  was  eighty-two  pounds  per  hour.  This  represented  932 
heat  units  per  pound  weight  of  steam  condensed  from  steam  at  twenty 
pounds  pressure  to  water  at  the  same  pressure ;  thus,  82x932  -*-  square 
feet  of  surface  of  pipe  (i,468)=52.o6  heat  units  per  square  foot  of  sur- 
face per  hour.  This  is  .179  of  a  pound  of  steam  at  twenty  pounds  pres-  7 
sure  condensed  per  square  foot  of  actual  outside  surface  of  pipe. 

The  manner  of  preparing  the  pipe  and  the  conditions  under  which  > 
it  was  placed  are  given  as  follows  :  The  pipe  is  wound  with  asbestos, 
followed  by  hair-felting,  porous  paper,  Manilla  paper,  and  finally  thin 
strips  of  wood  laid  on  lengthwise,  and  the  whole  wound  by  a  copper 
wire  and  thrust  into  a  wooden  log  bored  to  leave  an  air-space  between 
the  pipe  and  the  log.  The  whole  is  laid  in  a  trench  in  the  ground, 
and  an  earthen  drain-pipe  placed  below  it  to  carry  off  water  from  the 
ground. 

With  higher  pressures  the  condensation  of  course  will  be  greater 
per  unit  of  surface,  increasing  in  a  ratio  presumably  about  as  the 
increase  of  pressure  of  the  steam. 


STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 


OIL   IN   BOILERS    FROM    EXHAUST    STEAM. 

Q,  WE  would  like  your  opinion  on  a  question  of  danger  from  oil 
in  boilers,  and  to  be  understood  we  will  explain  as  follows  :  A  building 
is  heated  by  exhaust  steam  from  engine.  The  condensed  water  is 
returned  to  a  tank,  then  pumped  into  mud-drum  of  boiler.  Water 
returned  will  give  the  boiler  about  eight-tenths  of  its  supply  ;  city 
water  (which  has  some  lime  in  it)  is  added  to  make  the  required 
amount  used.  Mineral-oil  is  used  to  lubricate  engine,  cylinder, 
valves,  etc.  Suction-pipe  from  pump  to  tank  is  arranged  to  pump  not 
closer  than  six  inches  to  the  bottom  of  tank  and  not  to  take  water 
within  two  inches  of  the  surface  of  water — that  is,  it  is  arranged  not  to 
pump  any  sediment  or  anything  that  would  float  in  tank.  We  want  to 
use  return-water,  as  it  is  thought  to  be  best  for  boiler,  but  some  persons 
have  told  the  owner  that  using  water  in  this  way  will  cause  the  boiler 
to  burn  above  fire,  the  oil  forming  a  bubble  or  otherwise  preventing  the 
water  from  reaching  or  absorbing  the  heat  from  boiler-plate.  For 
years,  after  cleaning  out  boiler,  the  same  oil  now  used  to  oil  cylinder 
has  been  put  in  boiler,  a  gallon  at  each  time,  to  prevent  scale.  The 
same  city  water  has  been  heated  in  a  Stillwell  heater  (a  surface-heater 
with  plates  to  direct  water  so  it  falls  through  exhaust  steam),  then 
pumped  to  boiler.  We  admit  that  animal  fat  or  oil  in  a  boiler  will  do 
great  harm — that  is,  enough  of  it  will — but  even  cylinder-oil  with  ani- 
mal matter  in  it,  where  water  is  returned  from  heating-apparatus,  will 
do  no  more  harm  than  where  a  (Stillwell)  surface-heater  is  used.  The 
oil  has  just  as  good  a  chance  to  get  in  boiler  one  way  as  the  other. 
We  have  written  the  details  so  you  would  have  a  better  understanding, 
but  the  question  is  :  We  say  using  exhaust  steam  for  heating,  pump- 
ing the  water  of  condensation  back  into  the  boiler,  where  cylinder  is 
lubricated  with  mineral-oil,  etc.,  (tanks  cleaned  every  two  weeks)  will 
not  injure  boiler,  but  will  be  better  than  fresh  water  that  has  lime  in  it ; 
but  we  also  admit  that  it  is  not  the  proper  thing  to  pump  water  of  con- 
densation back  to  boiler  without  extra  care  in  cleaning  tanks  where 
animal  fat  or  oil  is  used  to  lubricate  cylinder,  etc.  The  other  party 
says  that  the  steam  containing  the  oil  being  passed  through  heating- 
apparatus  repeatedly  changes  the  nature  of  the  oil  and  water,  and 
causes  it  to  do  harm  to  boilers,  but  also  says  putting  the  same  oil 
directly  into  the  boiler  through  manhole,  a  gallon  at  a  time,  will  not 
harm  the  boiler,  but  will  clean  it.  (That  is  the  custom  here — to  put 
in  black  oil  to  prevent  scaling).  The  question  then  narrows  to  this  ; 


MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS.  223 

Will  it  harm  a  boiler  to  pump  the  water  of  condensation  (using  exhaust 
steam  in  heating-apparatus)  back  to  boiler  repeatedly,  using  mineral 
oil  to  lubricate  cylinder,  etc.  ? 

A.  Of  the  danger  of  carrying  most,  if  not  all,  qualities  of  oils  into 
a  boiler  along  with  the  feed-water  from  any  source  there  is  no  question. 
The  publishers  of  the  Locomotive,  who  are  probably  in  as  good  a 
position  as  any  persons  in  the  country  to  obtain  knowledge  on  this 
subject,  are  afraid  of  the  results  that  may  follow  the  use  of  oil.  They 
do  not  object  to  the  use  of  pure  mineral  oil — meaning,  presumably, 
crude  petroleum — and  say  :  "  Crude  petroleum  is  one  thing,  but  that 
black  oil,  which  may  mean  almost  anything,  is  very  likely  to  be  something 
different."  To  be  safe,  nothing  but  the  crude  petroleum,  that  can  be 
purchased  for  less  than  ten  cents  per  gallon,  should  be  used  as  a  boiler 
purge. 

About  the  danger  of  animal  oils,  and  probably  also  of  the  vegetable 
oils  there  seems  to  be  not  the  least  question,  but  many  do  not  hesitate 
to  use  large  quantities  of  these  cheap  manufactured  mineral  oils  for- 
boiler  purging,  not  knowing,  or  not  considering,  that  many  of  these 
cheap  oils  are  a  little  better  than  a  residuum  of  some  other  manufac- 
tured products,  and  containing  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  heavy  constituents 
of  crude  petroleum  and  other  substances  that  may  be  added  to  give  a 
''body  "  or  increase  the  lubricating  power  of  the  oil. 

More  on  this  question  may  be  found  on  page  33,  where  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  misuse  of  oil  in  boilers  is  given. 

On  the  other  hand,  exhaust  steam  from  cylinders  of  engines  or 
pumps  can  be  and  is  put  into  the  general  heating-apparatus,  and  the 
water  thus  formed  pumped  into  the  boilers  without  injury.  It  must  be 
remembered,  though,  that  while  this  is  possible  with  a  properly 
arranged  apparatus,  it  is  very  easy  to  arrange  one  that  may  work  injury. 

The  oil  must  be  separated  from  the  steam  if  it  is  carried  over,  and 
this  separation  should  be  done  before  the  exhaust  steam  enters  the 
heating-pipes,  otherwise  the  pipes  and  radiators  must  become  the 
recipients  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  oil  or  grease.  The  inside  of 
the  pipes  form  a  kind  of  condensing-surface  for  the  heavy  oils  that  are 


224  STEAM-HEATING  AND  STEAM-FITTING  PROBLEMS. 

not  held  in  suspension,  and  only  very  light  oils,  as  a  general  thing,  ever 
reach  the  receiving-tank.  If  oil  is  found  in  the  tank,  your  method  is 
the  only  one  we  know  of  to  prevent  its  getting  into  the  boiler. 

Frequent  and  conscientious  inspection  of  the  tank  and  boiler  is  all 
that  can  be  then  done  by  the  engineer,  who,  if  he  finds  the  grease  accu- 
mulates in  the  tank  in  such  quantities  that  some  of  it  finds  its  way  into 
the  boiler,  must  then  consider  means  of  preventing  it,  either  by  separa- 
tion or  by  wasting  the  steam  to  atmosphere,  or  condensing  it  in  a 
separate  part  of  the  heating-pipes  and  allowing  this  portion  of  the  con- 
densed water  to  go  to  waste. 

Where  the  water  contains  lime  it  is  important  that  all  the  con- 
densed water  should  be  recovered,  and  for  this  reason  :  If  you  find  by 
actual  examination  that  no  grease  is  carried  into  the  boiler,  or,  at  least, 
none  can  be  found  there  (as  the  lime  may  have  something  to  do  with 
neutralizing  a  little  oil),  that  you  do  right  to  do  so. 

On  page  171  will  be  found  a  description  of  an  apparatus  used  to 
separate  oil  from  exhaust  steam,  and  which  may  be  used  by  any  one, 
as  it  is  not  patented. 


INDEX. 


AIR-BINDING   in     return-pipes    and    the 

remedy,  83,  85. 
Air-binding  of  box-coils  and  the  remedy, 

59- 
Air,  capacity  of  to  contain  watery  vapor, 

120. 
Air  compressed  in  tanks   applied  to  the 

automatic    raising-    of     water,    116, 

118. 

Air,  arrangements  to  remove  from  steam- 
apparatus  which  is  used  as  hot-water 

apparatus,  220. 
Air,  quantity  of  required  for  heating  and 

ventilating  rooms  of  known  dimen- 
sions, 8 1. 
Air,  sensible  temperature  of,  as  affected 

by   the   presence  of    watery  vapor, 

122. 

Air-spaces  in  walls,  121. 
Air,  theoretical  and  actual  velocites  of  in 

flues,  97. 
American   Steam    Company's  system    of 

street-mains,  203,  204,  205. 
Animal  oils  in  boilers  dangerous,  223. 
Asbestos  cardboard  for  gaskets,  23. 
Ashes  in  coal,  percentage  of,  136. 
Ashes  in  street    fillings,  their  action  on 

iron  pipes,  217. 
Aspirating-shafts    in     the    Ogdensburg, 

N.  Y.,  opera-house,   196. 
Austria  and  Germany,  methods  of  heating 

houses  in,  198  to  203. 
Automatic  apparatus  for  raising  water  in 

buildings,  116  to  119. 
Automatic  pump-governor,  137. 

BAKER,  SMITH  &  Co.'s  sectional  radia- 
tor, 140,  141. 

Baldwin,  W.  J.,  recommends  removable 
boiler-lugs,  29. 

Bending  pipes  and  cutting  nipples,  106  to 
US- 

Bending  pipes  in  the  shop,  in. 

Blowing  off  and  filling  a  boiler  in  summer, 
17- 

Boiler,  horizontal,  for  house-heating,  re- 
setting of,  153. 

Boiler  plant  arranged  for  heating  several 
adjacent  buildings,  71,  cf.  81,  cf.  130. 

Boilers,  17  to  44. 

Boilers,  applying  filters  and  other  means 
to  the  purification  of  water  supplied 
to,  131. 


Boilers,  blowing  off  and  filling  during 
summer  when  the  boiler  is  not  to  be 
used,  17. 

Boilers,  calculating  the  quantity  of  water 
in,  155- 

Boilers,  carbonic-acid  gas  accumulating 
in  and  causing  danger  of  suffocation, 
25- 

Boilers,  domes  supposed  to  have  caused 
charring  of  wood,  40. 

Boilers  for  hot-water  and  steam  appa- 
ratus, amount  of  heating  or  fire  sur- 
face in,  51. 

Boilers  for  hot-water  heating  in  England, 
158,  i59: 

Boilers,  feeding  of,  size  of  pumps,  and 
forcing-rpipes  necessary  for,  26. 

Boiler  foundations,  154. 

Boilers,  isolating-valves  for,  29  to  33. 

Boilers,  lugs  for  arranged  to  be  remova- 
ble, 28. 

Boilers,  magazine  muzzles  of .  (See  maga- 
zines.) 

Boilers  of  the  Manhattan  and  Merchants' 
Bank  Building,  172. 

Boilers  of  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance 
Building,  178,  179. 

Boilers  of  the  Tribune  Building,  182 
to  187. 

Boilers,  oil  in,  dangers  of,  33,  222. 

Boilers,  pipes  from.     (See  pipes.) 

Boilers,  position  of  try-cocks  on,  155. 

Boilers,  proper  place  on  to  place  test- 
gauges,  1 8. 

Boilers,  range,  life  of,  42. 

Boilers,  rivets  for,  iron  and  steel,  35,  36. 

Boilers,  rivets.    (See  also  rivets.) 

Boilers,  safety-valves  for.  (See  safety- 
valves.) 

Boilers,  setting  of  in  the  Tribune  Build- 
ing, 182  to  187. 

Boilers,  several  connected  together,  acci- 
dent from  careless  treatment  of  an 
expansion-joint  and  valve-connec- 
tions, 39. 

Boilers,  size  of  estimated  for  given  radia- 
tor-surface, 52. 

Boilers,  water  in,  what  will  be  condition 
of  when  used  repeatedly  in  a  gravity- 
apparatus,  38. 

Boilers,  water  in,  expanding  by  heat,  21. 

Boilers,  water-line  of,  how  low  should  it 
be,  82. 


226 


Boilers,  water-line  of,  how  to  determine, 

155- 

Boilers,  water-tube,  in  France,  206. 
Boiling  as  a  means  of  purifying  water, 

!34- 

Boston  Water-Works,  ram  for  testing  fit- 
tings at,  134. 

Box-coils,  air-binding  of  and  the  remedy, 

59- 

Brass  pipe,  rate  of  expansion  of,  213. 
Breakage  of  steam-mains  in  New  York 

streets,  205,  206. 
Buildings,  several  adjacent,  heating  with  a 

single  boiler  plant,  71,  cf.  81,  cf.  130. 

CALCULATING  quantity  of  water  in  a 
boiler,  155. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  in  boilers  causing 
death  pf  an  inspector,  25. 

Cast-iron  safe  for  steam-radiators,  138. 

Cast-iron  surface  compared  with  pipe- 
surface  for  heating,  62. 

Centennial  Exhibition,  experiments  on 
ashes  in  coal,  136. 

Centrifugal  fan  used  in  France,  210. 

Charring  of  wood  said  to  be  caused  by 
boiler-dome  or  steam-pipes,  40  to  42. 

Church,  pilasters  in  utilized  for  flues 
188. 

Church,  ventilation  of,  98. 

Churches,  warming  of  by  coils  in  each 
pew,  65,  67. 

Circuits  established  improperly  between 
steam-risers  and  return-pipes,  214. 

Cisterns  for  hot-water  heating,  arrange- 
ment of  in  large  buildings,  43. 

Cisterns,  of  copper,  of  galvanized-iron, 
rusting  of,  etc.,  42. 

Cisterns.     (See  also  tanks.) 

Close  nipples  of  large  size,  how  to  cut, 
1 06. 

Close  nipples,  removing  from  couplings 
after  the  thread  is  cut,  no. 

Coal  and  radiator  surface,  relation  be- 
tween, 154. 

Coal  consumption  in  Hauber's  patent 
stoves,  203. 

Coal,  amount  of  required  for  heating  cer- 
tain buildings  or  rooms,  45,  cf.  54. 

Coal  fires,  advantages  of  feeding  new  coal 
above  or  below  them,  201. 

Coal,  percentage  of  ashes  in,  136. 

Coal,  per  square  foot  of  grate  in  economi- 
cal consumption,  154. 

Coal-tar  coating  for  pipes,  130. 

Coils,  box,  air-binding  of  and  the  remedy, 
59,  63. 

Coils  connected  with  engine-exhaust 
should  not  be  of  too  small  diameter, 
102. 


Coils  compared  with  pipe-surface,  62. 

Coils  for  hot-water  heating  in  France, 
208,  209. 

Coils  for  superheating  steam,  length  of 
required,  101. 

Coils,  remarks  on  the  proper  setting  and 
connection  of,  63. 

Coils,  amount  required  for  rooms  of 
known  dimensions,  88. 

Coils,  2^-inch,  connected  with  engine- 
exhaust,  IC2. 

Coils  for  oil-stills,  217. 

Cold  air  ducts,  sizes  computed,  89. 

Condensation  of  vapor  on  walls,  I2O. 

Condensation  of  steam  per  square  foot  of 
pipe-surface  in  the  pipes  of  the  New- 
York  Steam  Company,  221. 

Condenser  for  steam-exhaust  pipes  to 
prevent  the  fall  of  spray,  144  to  146. 

Condensed  water,  method  of  estimating 
the  heat  due  Jo,  152. 

Connected  boilers,  accident  caused  by 
careless  treatment  of  expansion-joint 
in  the  connection  of  one  of  the 
boiler-valves,  39. 

Connecting  steam  and  return  risers  at 
their  tops,  reasons  for,  213,  214. 

Cocks,  try,  on  boilers,  155. 

Copenhagen  Fine  Arts  Exhibition  Build- 
ing, heating  of,  192  to  194. 

Cost  of  steam  for  melting  snow  on  the 
streets,  216. 

Cost  of  steam  for  warming  a  given  room 
or  space,  54,  cf.  45. 

Cover  of  cloth  for  regulating  a  steam- 
radiator,  56. 

Crooked  threads,  how  to  cut  them  on 
close  nipples,  108. 

Cushing's,  Frank  A.,  automatic  pump- 
governor,  137. 

Cutting  crooked  threads  on  close  nipples, 
108. 

Cutting  4-inch  close  nipples,   106. 

Cutting  nipples  and  bending  pipes, 
io6to  115. 

Cutting  nipples  of  large  size,  106,  112. 

Cutting  threads  of  vaiious  sizes  with  a 
solid  die,  113. 

DAKOTA  Apartment  -  House,  cast-iron 
safes  in  for  radiators,  138. 

Dampness  on  walls,  and  its  preven- 
tion, 1 20. 

Detroit,  Mich.,  First  Baptist  Church, 
heating  of,  66. 

Diameters  of  standard  pipe,  74. 

Dies,  solid,  adapted  to  cutting  threads  of 
different.sizes,  113. 

Differential  'ram  for  testing  fittings, 
134- 


227 


Direct  radiation,  cost  as  compared  with 
indirect,  45,  46. 

Direct  radiation  for  church-warming, 
65,  67. 

Dome  of  a  boiler  supposed  to  have 
charred  wood,  40. 

Domes,  purposes  and  utility  of  dis- 
cussed, 20. 

Domes,  size  of  sheets  and  character  of 
steel  for  making,  19. 

Double  glazing,  economical  results  of,  49. 

Ducts  for  warm  air  in  the  auditorium  of 
the  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,  Opera- 
House,  195,  198. 

Dye-houses,  arrangement  of  flues  and 
pipe  surface  to  remove  vapor  from, 
92. 

ELEVATOR  pump-connections  with  a 
steam-trap  so  arranged  as  to  waste 
steam  and  cause  back-pressure,  128. 

Elevators,  hydraulic,  computing  the 
power  necessary  to  raise  water  tor, 
215- 

Elmira,  N.  Y.,  State  Reformatory,  ven- 
tilation and  heating  of,  148. 

Emery's,   C.  E.,   isolating- valve,  32,  33. 

England,  low-pressure  hot-water  system 
of  heating  in,  156. 

Exhaust-condensers  for  preventing  the 
fall  of  spray,  144  to  146. 

Exhaust  steam  and  live  steam  used  in  the 
same  heating  job,  99. 

Exhaust  steam  carrying  oil  into  boilers, 
effects  of,  222. 

Exhaust  steam  for  heating  the  Fine 
Arts  Exhibition  Building  in  Copen- 
hagen, 192  to  194. 

Exhaust  steam  for  heating  the  Manhattan 
and  Merchants'  Bank  Building,  165 
to  168. 

Exhaust  steam  for  heating,  its  economy, 
99. 

Exhaust  steam  from  a  given  engine, 
amount  of  surface  required  to  con- 
dense it,  103. 

Exhaust  steam  not  to  be  turned  into  too 
small  a  coil,  102. 

Exhaust  steam,  tank  for  separating  grease 
from,  170. 

Expansion  and  apparent  increase  of  bulk 
of  water  in  boilers  due  to  heat,  21. 

Expansion-joints  designed  to  prevent 
telescoping,  153. 

Expansion-joints  on  mains  in  New  York 
streets,  203,  204,  205,  206. 

Expansion-joint  in  the  connection  be- 
tween two  boilers  causes  an  accident, 
39- 

Expansion  of  pipes  of  various  metals,  75. 


Expansion   of    brass    pipe  and  of   iron 

pipe,  213. 
Expansion  of  steam-pipes,  apparently  less 

than  theory  requires,  75. 
Experiments  on  the  percentage  of  ashes 

in  coal,  136. 
Explosion  of  steam-table,  103  ;  means  to 

prevent,  104. 

Extended  surface,  definition  of  61. 
Extended   surface    heaters    or    radiators 

used  in  France,  207. 

FAN  for  church  ventilation,  size  of,  98. 

Fan,  centrifugal,  used  in  France,  210. 

Fan,  helicoidal,  used  in  France,  210, 
211. 

Fan,  hydro-ventilator,  used  in  France, 
211. 

Feed-piptes,  different  arrangements  of 
suggested  where  the  amount  of  water 
fed  was  insufficient,  26,  27. 

Feed- water  carrying  oil  into  boilers,  effects 
of,  223. 

Feeders  for  boilers,  applying  filters  to, 
131- 

Feeding  boilers,  difficulties  arising  from 
insufficient  pumping  power,  great 
length,  and  insufficient  size  of  pipes, 
26. 

Filters  for  boiler-feeders,  131. 

Fires,  are  they  likely  to  be  caused  by 
steam-pipes,  40,  42. 

Fitting  and  piping,  70  to  85. 

Fitting,  just  good  enough  to  work,  70, 
7i. 

Fittings,  differential  ram  for  testing, 
134.  . 

Flues  devised  in  a  church  by  use  of  the 
pilasters,  188. 

Flues  heated  by  Bunsen  gas-burners, 
190. 

Flues,  size  of  computed,  87,  88,  89,  97. 

Flues.  (See  also  ducts  and  aspirating- 
shafts.) 

Foundations  for  boilers,  154. 

Fractional  valves  for  graduating  radiator- 
surface,  142. 

Fractional  valves  in  the  Manhattan  and 
Merchants'  Bank  Building,  164,  169, 
170. 

France,  heating  and  ventilation  of  build- 
ings in,  206  to  2ii. 

Fuel,  amount  of  required  to  warm  build- 
ings of  certain  capacities,  by  hot- 
water  heating,  47. 

Fuel,  amount  of  required  to  warm  build- 
ings of  certain  capacities,  on  direct 
and  indirect  radiation,  45,  47,  cf.  54. 

GAS-BURNERS,  Bunsen,  used  for  heating 
ventilating-flues,  190. 


228 


INDEX. 


Gas-pipes,  testing  for  leaks  in,  132. 

Gas-pipes,  making  joints  on  tight,  133. 

Gaskets  of  asbestos  cardboard  preferable 
to  those  of  India  rubber  for  safety- 
valve  connections,  23. 

Gauges  for  testing  boilers,  where  to  be 
placed,  1 8. 

Geneste,  Herscher  et  Cie's  pamphlet  on 
the  heating  and  ventilation  of  build- 
ings in  France,  206. 

Glass,  relation  of  radiating  surface  to,  49. 

Globe-valves,  proper  and  improper  posi- 
tions of  on  radiators,  57. 

Gold's,  E.  E.,  method  of  graduating  radi- 
ator surface,  143. 

Gold's  pin  surface,  comparative  value  of, 
62. 

Governor,  automatic,  for  pumps,  137. 

Graduating  radiator  surface,  139  to  144. 

Graduating-valves  in  the  Manhattan  and 
Merchants'  Bank  Building,  164,  169, 
170. 

Graduating  valves.  (See  also  fractional 
valves.) 

Grate  surface  to  give  economical  combus- 
tion of  fuel,  154. 

Gravity  apparatus,  how  to  apply  a  steam- 
trap  to,  212. 

Gravity-return  heating-apparatus  boilers, 
condition  of  water  in.  38. 

Gravity-return  heating-apparatus,  used 
for  several  adjacent  buildings,  71,  81. 

Grease-separating  tank  in  the  Manhattan 
and  Merchants'  Bank  Building,  170; 
in  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co.'s 
Building,  180. 

HAUBER'S  patent  stoves  in  Germany,  200. 

Heat  due  to  condensation  of  water, 
method  of  estimating  in  order  to  test 
work  of  steam-apparatus,  152. 

Heat  in  low-pressure  and  high-pressure 
steam  available  for  heating  purposes, 
comparison  between,  100. 

Heat  given  out  by  steam-apparatus,  its 
relation  to  heat  due  to  condensation, 
and  method  of  estimating,  152. 

Heating  and  ventilation  of  buildings  in 
France  and  other  countries,  206  to 
211. 

Heating  and  ventilation  of  the  Ogdens- 
burg,  N.  Y.,  Opera-House,  195  to 
198. 

Heating  and  ventilation  of  the  State  Re- 
formatory at  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  148. 

Heating  and  ventilation  of  the  West  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  New  York  City, 
18710  192. 

Heating  and  ventilation  of  the  "Umbria," 
93- 


Heating  -  apparatus  in  the  Manhattan 
and  Merchants'  Bank  Building,  161. 

Heating-apparatus  in  the  Fine  Arts  Ex- 
hibition Building  in  Copenhagen, 
192  to  194. 

Heating-apparatus,  steam,  in  the  Kala- 
mazoo  Insane  Asylum,  146. 

Heating-apparatus  on  the  gravity-return 
principle,  condition  of  the  water  in 
boilers  of,  38. 

Heating  by  exhaust-steam,  economy  of, 
99. 

Heating  by  low-pressure  hot-water  appa- 
ratus in  England,  156  ;  in  the  United 
States,  1 60. 

Heating  by  hot  water,  radiators  for,  58. 

Heating  certain  buildings  and  the  amount 
of  fuel  required,  45,  cf.  54. 

Heating  churches  by  direct  radiation,  65, 
67. 

Heating  houses  in  Germany  and  Austria, 
198  to  203. 

Heating  on  the  one-pipe  system,  79. 

Heating  several  buildings  from  same 
boiler  plant,  71,  cf.  81,  130. 

Heating-surface,  how  much  will  a  steam- 
pipe  of  given  size  supply,  52. 

Heating-surfaces  or  fire-surfaces,  amount 
of  required  in  hot-water-apparatus 
and  steam-apparatus  boilers,  51. 

Heating-surfaces,  pipe  and  cast-iron,  rela- 
tive value  of,  62. 

Heating-surfaces  proportioned  to  air- 
space, 45. 

Heating-surfaces  proportioned  to  a  given 
room,  51,  53. 

Heating-surfaces  required  to  condense 
steam  from  a  given  engine-exhaust, 
102. 

Heating-surfaces,  value  of,  45  to  55. 

Heating  water  for  Hotel  Warren,  126. 

Heating  water  for  large  institutions,  125. 

Heating  water  in  large  tanks,  how  to  do 
it,  124. 

Helicoidal  fan  used  in  France,  210. 

Holly  Company's  estimates  of  condensa- 
tion in  steam-mains,  221. 

Holly  Company's  steam-pipes,  method  of 
laying,  221. 

Hood's  theory  of  hot-water  circulation, 
157- 

Hopkinson,  J.,  &  Co.'s  isolating-valve, 
29,  30. 

Horizontal  boiler,  resetting  of,  153. 

Hot-air  flues,  size  of  computed  for  rooms 
of  given  dimensions,  87,  88,  89. 

Hot-water  apparatus  and  steam-apparatus 
arranged  to  be  interconvertible,  219. 

Hot-water  circulation,  Hood's  theory  of, 
157- 


229 


Hot-water  heating,  amount  of  surface  re- 
quired, 47. 

Hot-water  heating-apparatus  in  France, 
208,  209. 

Hot-water  heating,  low  pressure,  in  Eng- 
land, 156  ;  in  the  United  States,  160. 

Hot-water  heating,  radiators  for,  58. 

Hot-water  heating,  stove  arranged  for, 
60. 

Hotel  job  of  steam-fitting,  with  mains 
too  small,  no  reliefs,  and  other  de- 
fects, 70. 

Hotel  Warren,  in  Boston,  method  of  heat- 
ing water  for,  126. 

House-heating  systems  in  Germany  and 
Austria,  j  98  to  203. 

Hydraulic  elevators,  computing  the  power 
required  to  raise  the  necessary  quan- 
tity of  water,  215. 

Hydro-ventilator  fan  used  in  France,  211. 

INSPECTORS  of  boilers  endangered  by  the 
presence  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  25. 

Iron  pipe  injured  by  ashes  in  street  fil- 
lings, 217. 

Iron  pipe,  rate  of  expansion  of,  213. 

Isolating-valves  where  several  boilers  are 
used  :  the  English  valve,  29  30;  the 
American  valve,  31,  33. 

JOINTS,  expansion,  designed  to  prevent 
"telescoping,"  153. 

Joint,  expansion,  in  fhe  connection 
between  two  boilers,  causes  an  acci- 
dent, 39. 

Joints  on  gas-pipes,  making  them  tight, 
133. 

KAL,  term  used  by  New  York  Steam 
Company,  meaning  of,  55. 

Kalamazoo  Insane  Asylum,  steam-heat- 
ing apparatus  in,  146. 

LEAKS  in  gas-pipes,  testing  for,  132. 

Lochiel  Hotel,  steam-table  at  explodes, 
103. 

Locomotive,  The,  on  the  use  of  oil  in 
boilers,  33. 

Low-pressure  hot-water  system  in  Eng- 
land, 156. 

Lugs  for  boilers  arranged  to  be  remova- 
ble, 28. 

MAGAZINE  MUZZLES  on  house-heating 
boilers,  how  to  prevent  their  burning 

Off,  21. 

Manhattan  and  Merchants'  Bank  Build- 
ing, steam-heating  apparatus  in,  161; 
boilers  in,  172. 

Melting  snow  in  the  streets  by  steam, 
estimate  of  the  fuel  required,  216. 


Meigs,  General  M.  C.,  on  the  economical 
results  of  double  glazing  of  windows, 
49- 

Mills  system  patents,  what  are  they  ?  83. 

Miscellaneous,  12410  211. 

Miscellaneous  questions,  212  to  224. 

Moisture,  effect  of  on  sensible  tempera- 
ture, 122. 

Moisture  on  walls,  effect  on  sensible 
temperature,  120  to  123. 

Moisture  on  walls,  causes  and  preven- 
tion, 1 20. 

Mutual  Life  Building,  steam -heating 
apparatus  in,  171  ;  boilers  in,  178, 
179. 

Muzzles  of  magazines,  how  to  prevent 
their  burning  off,  21. 

NEW  YORK  STEAM  COMPANY  furnishes 
power  and  heat  to  the  Mutual  Life 
Insurance  Building,  178,  179,  180. 

New  York  Steam  Company's  system  of 
street-mains,  204. 

New  York  Steam  Company's  mains,  con- 
densation in,  221. 

New  York  streets,  system  of  steam-pipes 
in,  203  to  206. 

Nipples,  close,  of  large  size,  how  to  cut, 
106,  113. 

Nipples,  close,  cutting  crooked  threads 
on,  108. 

Nipple,  close,  removing  from  a  coupling 
after  the  thread  is  cut,  no. 

Nipple-cutting  and  pipe-bending,   106  to 

.  "S- 
Noise  in  steam-pipes,  cause  of,  78. 

OGDENSBURG,  N.  Y.,  opera-house,  warm- 
ing and  ventilation  of,  195  to  198. 

Oil  entering  boilers  from  exhaust  steam, 
is  it  harmful  ?  222. 

Oil  carried  into  boiler  with  feed-water, 
effects  of,  223. 

Oil  in  boilers,  dangers  of  use  of,  33. 

Oil-stills,  arrangement  of  steam-coil  for, 
217. 

Oil,  separating  from  exhaust-steam,  223, 
cf.  171. 

Oils,  animal  and  cheap  mineral,  danger- 
ous in  boilers,  223. 

One-pipe  system  of  steam-heating,  79. 

Overhead  piping  and  the  advantages 
claimed  for  it,  76. 

PASCAL  IRON-WORKS,  rules  for  determin- 
ing sizes  of  flues,  89. 

Patents  of  the  Mills  system,  what  are 
they?  83. 

Percentage  of  ashes  in  coal,  136. 

Pilasters  of  a  church  utilized  for  flues, 
188. 


230 


Pipe-bending  and  nipple-cutting,  106  to 
"5- 

Pipe-bending  in  the  shop,  in. 

Pipe,  iron,  injured  by  ashes  in  street 
fillings,  217. 

Pipe-guards  on  the  "  Umbria,"  95,  96. 

Pipe  of  standard  sizes,  true  diameters 
and  weights  of,  74. 

Pipe,  steam.     (See  steam-pipe.) 

Pipe  surface  compared  with  cast-iron  sur- 
face for  heating,  62. 

Pipe  surface  compared  with  coils,  62. 

Pipe-threads.     (See  threads.) 

Pipes,  coating  with  coal-tar,  130. 

Pipes,  expansion  of  apparently  less  than 
theory  requiries,  75. 

Pipes,  brass  and  iron,  expansion  of,  213. 

Pipes  from  boilers,  proper  method  of 
passing  through  walls,  24. 

Pipes  of  various  metals,  rates  of  expan- 
sion of,  75. 

Pipes.     (See  also  steam-pipes.) 

Piping  and  fitting,  70  to  85. 

Piping  in  a  church  heated  by  direct  radi- 
ation, 68. 

Piping  in  the  Manhattan  and  Merchants' 
Bank  Building,  162,  165,  166  ;  in  the 
Mutual  Life  Co.'s  Building,  182. 

Piping,  overhead,  the  advantages  claimed, 
76. 

Piping  where  several  adjacent  buildings 
are  heated  by  same  boiler  plant,  71, 
82. 

Plane  surface,  or  plain  surface,  differ- 
ence of  meaning  of,  6l. 

Plates  of  boilers  when  of  steel  should  be 
riveted  with  steel  rivets,  35,  36. 

Plates  of  different  thicknesses,  and  corre- 
sponding proportions  of  rivets,  37. 

Plenum  system  of  ventilation  in  the  Kala- 
mazoo  Insane  Asylum,  146. 

Power  required  to  raise  water  for  hydrau- 
lic elevators,  215. 

Pressure-regulating  valve  used  in  France, 
206,  207. 

Pressure  regulation  in  the  Mutual  Life 
Company's  Building,  180. 

Preventing  fall  of  spray  from  steam  ex- 
haust-pipes, 144  to  146. 

Prison  at  Elmira,  ventilation  and  heating 
of,  148. 

Public  institutions,  how  to  heat  water 
for,  125. 

Pump-engine  of  elevator  connecting  with 
steam-trap  so  as  to  waste  steam  and 
cause  back-pressure,  128. 

Pump-governor,  automatic,  137. 

Pumping  hot  water  and  steam,  72,  74. 

Pumps  for  feeding  a  battery  of  boilers, 
size  of  required,  26,  28. 


Pumps  or  traps  in  a  job  where  several 
buildings  are  to  be  heated  from  one 
boiler  plant,  73  ;  relative  economy 
of,  73- 

Purifying  water  by  boiling,  134. 

Purifying  water  for  boilers,  131. 

RADIATION,  direct  and  indirect,  com- 
pared with  reference  to  fuel  required, 
45,  46. 

Radiating-surface.   (See  radiator-surface.) 

Radiator,  safe  for,  of  cast-iron,  138. 

Radiator,  sectional,  139,  140,  141. 

Radiator-surface,  amount  of  required  for 
hot- water  heating  of  certain  build- 
ings, 47. 

Radiator-surface,  amount  of  required  for 
steam  or  hot-water  heating  of  certain 
buildings,  49. 

Radiator-surface,  amount  of  proportional 
to  glass,  49. 

Radiator-surface,  methods  of  graduating, 
139  to  144. 

Radiator-surface,  relation  of  to  coal- 
consumption,  154. 

Radiator-surface  required  for  a  given 
room,  51,  52,  cf.  88. 

Radiator-surface  proportional  to  size  of 
boiler,  52. 

Radiators  and  heaters,  56  to  69. 

Radiators  and  long  coils,  relative  effi- 
ciency of,  53. 

Radiators,  direct-indirect,  in  a  prison,  149. 

Radiators  for  hot-water  heating,  what 
forms  will  answer,  58. 

Radiators,  what  kinds  can  be  used  for 
hot-water  heating,  219. 

Radiators,  regulating,  woman's  method 
of,  56. 

Radiators,  regulating.  (See  graduating 
radiator-surface. ) 

Radiators  used  in  France,  207. 

Radiators,  valves  on,  improperly  placed, 
57- 

Raising  water  automatically,  116  to  119. 

Ram  on  the  differential  principle  for 
testing  fittings,  134. 

Reek's,  A.  B.,  system  for  heating  the 
Fine  Arts  Exhibition  Building  in 
Copenhagen,  192  to  194. 

Registers,  sizes  of  for  rooms  of  given  di- 
mensions, 86,  97. 

Regulating  steam  pressures  in  the  Mutual 
Life  Insurance  Co.'s  Building,  180. 

Regulating-valves  used  in  France,  206, 
207;  in  Mutual  Life  Building,  180. 

Resetting  house-boiler,  153. 

Return-pipes,  how  to  run  when  obstacles 
are  met,  and  how  to  obviate  air-bind- 
ing, 85. 


23% 


Return-pipes,  air-binding  in  and  the 
remedy,  83,  85. 

Return-pipes  and  main  steam-pipes  con- 
nected at  the  top,  213,  214. 

Riser  connections,  proper  place  of  valves 
on,  77. 

Risers,  steam  and  return,  connected  at 
the  top,  213,  214. 

Rivets  of  iron  in  steel  boiler-plates,  ob- 
jections to,  35. 

Rivets  of  steel  in  steel  boiler-plates,  good 
results  from  use  of,  36. 

Rivets,  proportions  of,  with  reference  to 
thickness  of  plates,  37. 

Rooms,  amount  of  radiator-surface  re- 
quired for,  51. 

SAFE  of  cast-iron  for  steam-radiators,  138. 

Safety-valves  rendered  inoperative  by 
careless  placing  of  gaskets,  22. 

Safety-valves,  importance  of  proper  con- 
nection with  boilers,  22. 

Sanitary  Engineer,  The,  office  heated  by 
hot-water  apparatus,  161. 

Sectional  radiators,  139,  140,  141. 

Setting  boilers  in  the  Tribune  Building, 
182  to  187. 

Setting  house-boiler,  153. 

Sky-light  in  the  Manhattan  and  Mer- 
chants' Bank  Building,  arrangement 
of  steam-pipes  about,  167. 

Slotting  magazine  muzzles  to  prevent 
their  burning  off,  21. 

Snow  in  the  streets,  melting  by  steam, 
cost  of  fuel  for,  216. 

Solid  dies  adapted  to  the  cutting  of 
threads  of  different  sizes,  113,  114. 

Specification  for  boilers  in  the  Manhattan 
and  Merchants'  Bank  Building,  172 
to  176. 

Spray  from  steam-exhaust  pipes,  con- 
densers to  prevent  fall  of,  144  to  146, 

Standard  pipe,  true  diameters  and  weights 
of,  74. 

Steam,  99  to  105. 

Steam-apparatus  so  arranged  as  to  be 
convertible  into  a  hot-water  appa- 
ratus and  back  again,  219. 

Steam-coils  for  heating  oil-stills,  217. 

Steam,  condensation  of  in  pipes  of  New 
York  Steam  Company  estimated,  221. 

Steam,  exhaust.  (See  also  exhaust  steam.) 

Steam  exhaust  carrying  oil  into  boilers, 
effects  of,  222. 

Steam,  exhaust,  economy  of  using  for 
heating,  99. 

Steam  for  melting  snow,  computing  cost 
of,  216. 

Steam-fitting  in  a  hotel,  with  mains  too 
small,  no  reliefs,  and  other  defects,  70. 


Steam  for  power  and  heating  in  the 
Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company's 
Building  derived  from  street-mains 
of  the  New  York  Steam  Company, 
178,  179,  1 80. 

Steam-heating  apparatus  in  the  Fine  Arts 
Exhibition  Building  in  Copenhagen, 
192  to  194. 

Steam-heating  apparatus  in  the  Kalama- 
zoo  Insane  Asylum,  146. 

Steam-heating  apparatus  in  the  Manhat- 
tan and  Merchants'  Bank  Building, 
161. 

Steam-heating  apparatus  in  the  Mutual 
Life  Building,  177. 

Steam-heating  apparatus,  method  of  as- 
certaining heat  given  off  by,  through 
determining  heat  due  to  condensation 
of  water,  152. 

Steam-heating  on  the  one-pipe  system, 
79- 

Steam,  low-pressure  and  high-pressure, 
available  heat  in  for  heating,  100. 

Steam-pipe,  how  much  heating  surface 
will  a  %"'  pipe  supply,  52. 

Steam-pipes  and  return-pipes  connected 
at  the  tops,  213,  214. 

Steam-pipes  in  New  York  streets,  method 
of  laying,  expansion-joints,  etc.,  203 
to  206;  breakage,  205,  206. 

Steam-pipes,  expansion  of  apparently  less 
than  theory  requires,  75. 

Steam-pipes,  condensation  in,  estimated, 

221. 

Steam-pipes,  condensers   to  prevent  the 

fall  of  spray  from,  144  to  146. 
Steam-pipes,  noise  in  and  its  cause,  78. 
Steam-pipes  of  Holly  Company,  method 

of  laying,  221. 
Steam-pipes  supposed  to  cause  charring 

of  wood  and  fires,  subject  discussed, 

40  to  42. 

Steam-radiator.     (See  radiator.) 
Steam  riser  connections,  proper  position 

of  vahes  on,  77, 

Steam,  superheating  by  coils,  101. 
Steam-table,  explosion  of,  103. 
Steam-tables  arranged  to  diminish  liability 

of  explosion,  103,  104. 
Steam-trap    connected     with    pumping- 

engine  so  as  to  waste  steam,  128. 
Steam-trap,  how  to  be  applied  to  gravity 

apparatus,  212. 
Steam-trap,   proper   connection  of    with 

engine  cylinder,  129. 
Steam-trap,  how  the  pipe  conveying  live 

steam  to  it  must  be  conneotetf  with 

the  boiler,  213. 

Steel  for  domes  and  boilers,  19. 
Stills,  oil,  steam-coils  I'JT,  217. 


232 


Stove  arranged  for  hot-water  heating,  60. 

Stoves  for  heating  houses  in  Germany 
and  Austria,  198,  199. 

Stoves,  Hauber's  patent,  in  Germany,  200. 

Street  fillings  of  ashes  injurious  to  iron 
pipes.  217. 

Street-mains  as  a  source  of  power  and 
heat  in  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance 
Co.'s  Building,  178,  179,  180. 

Streets  of  New  York,  steam-pipe  systems 
in  the,  203  to  206. 

Streets,  snow  in,  cost  of  melting  by 
steam,  216. 

Stumpf 's,  G. ,  apparatus  for  raising  water 
automatically  by  compressed  air,  1 16. 

Suffocation  of  workmen  in  boilers,  25. 

Superheating  steam  by  coils,  101. 

Supervising  inspectors  for  steam-vessels, 
their  rules  for  placing  test-guages, 
18. 

Surfaces,  extended,  definition  of,  61. 

Surfaces  for  heating,  how  much  will  a 
steam-pipe  of  given  size  supply,  52. 

Surfaces  for  heating  (fire  surfaces)  in  hot- 
water  and  steam-apparatus  boilers, 
Si- 

Surfaces  for  heating  proportioned  to  air- 
space, 45. 

Surfaces  for  heating  proportioned  to  a 
given  room,  51,  53. 

Surfaces  for  heating,  value  of,  45  to  55. 

Surfaces,  pipe  and  cast-iron,  relative 
value  of,  62. 

Surfaces,  plane  or  plain,  meaning  of 
terms,  61. 

Surfaces,  radiator.  (See  radiator  sur- 
faces.) 

Switch-valves  in  the  West  Presbyterian 
Church,  in  New  York  City,  192. 

TABLE,  steam,  explosion  of,  103. 

Tailoring  and  steam-fitting,  "  just  good 
enough"  work  in  both,  71. 

Tanks  for  boilers  and  for  hot-water  heat- 
ing, 42. 

Tanks,  capacity  of  one  of  given  dimen- 
sions, 127. 

Tank  for  separating  grease  from  exhaust 
steam  in  the  Manhattan  and  Mer- 
chants' Bank  Building,  170  ;  in  the 
Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co.'s  Build- 
ing, 1 80. 

Tanks,  heating  water  in,  124,  126,  128. 

Tanks,  size  of  supply  to  fill  in  a  given 
time,  127. 

Tar,  coal,  as  a  coating  for  pipes,  130. 

Temperature,  sensible,  affected  by  mois- 
ture in  the  air,  122. 

Test-gauges,  where  to  be  placed  on 
boilers,  18. 


Testing  fittings  by  differential  ram,  134. 

Testing  gas-pipes  for  leaks,  132. 

"  Thermus  "   on    connecting   steam  and 

return  risers  at  the  top,  213,  214. 
' '  Thermus  "  on  cutting  crooked  threads 

on  close  nipples,  108. 
"  Thermus  "  on  cutting  large  close  nip- 
ples, 106. 
' '  Thermus  "   on    removing    large    close 

nipples    from     couplings    alter    the 

thread  is  cut,  no. 
Threads,  crooked,  cutting  them  on  close 

nipples,  108. 
Threads,   cutting  on  large  close  nipples, 

106. 
Threads  of  various  sizes,  cutting  with  the 

some  solid  die,  113. 
Trap,    steam,    connected    with    elevator 

pumping-engine     so    as     to    waste 

steam,  128. 
Trap,   steam,  how  to  be  applied  to  the 

gravity  apparatus,  212. 
Trap,  steam,  proper  way  to  connect  with 

engine-cylinder,  129. 
Traps   or  pumps  in  a  job  where  several 

buildings  are  to  be  heated  from  one 

boiler  plant,   73  ;    relative   economy 

of,  73- 
Tribune     Building,   steam-exhaust    pipe 

condensers  lor  preventing  the  fall  of 

spray,  145  ;  setting  of  the  boilers  in, 

182  to  187. 
Trowbridge,  Prof.  W.  P.,  on  heated  flues 

or  fans  for  securing  currents  in  flues, 

93- 
Try-cocks,  proper  positions  of  on  boilers, 

J55- 

Tudor's,  Frederick,  fractional-valve  for 
graduating  radiator-surface,  142. 

"  UMBRIA,"  Cunard  steamer,  ventilation 
and  heating  of,  93. 

VACUUM-PANS,  arrangement  of  steam- 
coils  for  use  with,  218. 

Valves  for  isolating  any  of  several  boilers, 
importance  of  and  patterns  of  used  in 
England  and  America,  29  to  33* 

Valves  for  regulating  steam-pressure  as 
used  in  France,  206,  207. 

Valves,  fractional,  for  graduating  radia- 
tor-surface, 142,  143. 

Valves,  fractional,  in  the  Manhattan  and 
Merchants'  Bank  Building,  164,  169, 
170. 

Valves,  globe.     (See  globe-valves.) 

Valves  improperly  placed  on  radiators, 
causing  the  bases  to  fill  with  water, 

Valves,  switch.     (See  switch-valves.) 


233 


Valves,  proper  and  improper  places  for. 
on  steam-riser  connections,  77. 

Vapor  condensing  on  walls  and  its  pre- 
vention, 120. 

Vapor  in  the  air  affects  sensible  tempera- 
ture, 122. 

Vapor,  removing  from  dye-houses  by 
means  of  heated  flues,  92. 

Varnishes  for  making  joints  on  gas-pipes 
tight,  133. 

Ventilating-flues,  constructing  by  utiliz- 
ing pilasters  of  a  church,  188. 

Ventilating-flues  heated  by  Bunsen  gas- 
burners,  190. 

Ventilation,  86  to  98. 

Ventilation  and  heating  of  buildings  in 
France  and  other  countries,  206  to 
211. 

Ventilation  and  heating  of  the  Ogdens- 
burg,  No  Y.,  Opera  House,  195  to 
198. 

Ventilation  and  heating  of  the  West  Pres- 
byterian Church,  in  New  York  City, 
187  to  192. 

Ventilation  and  heating  of  New  York 
State  Reformatory,  at  Elmira,  148. 

Ventilation  by  heated  flues  or  by  fans, 
93- 

Ventilation-flues,  computing  sizes  of,  89. 

Ventilation  of  a  church,  98. 

Ventilation  of  Cunard  steamer  "Umbria," 
93- 

Ventilation,  plenum,  in  the  Kalamazoo 
Insane  Asylum,  146. 

Ventilators,  window,  for  schools,  etc.,  90, 
91. 

WALLS,  moisture   collecting  on  and  its 

rvention,  120. 
proper  method  of  passing  pipes 

through,  24. 
Walworth   Manufacturing  Co.'s   method 

of  graduating  radiator- surf  aces,  143. 
Warming  and  ventilation  of  buildings  in 

France  and  other  countries,   206  to 

211. 
Warming  and  ventilation  of  the  Ogdens- 

burg,  N.  Y.,  Opera  House,  195  to 

198. 


Warming  and  ventilation  of  the  West 
Presbyterian  Church,  in  New  York 
City,  187  to  192. 

Warming.     (See  also  heating.) 

Water,  boiling  of  as  a  means  of  purify- 
ing, 134. 

Water  condensed  in  steam -apparatus  in- 
dicative of  heat  given  off,  method  of 
conducting  tests,  152. 

Water,  condition  of  in  boilers  of  gravity 
apparatus,  38. 

Water, expansion  of  and  apparent  increase 
of  bulk  when  a  boiler  is  fired  up,  21. 

Water  for  boilers,  methods  of  purifying, 
131- 

Water  for  hydraulic  elevators,  power  re- 
quired to  raise,  215. 

Water-hammer,  cause  of,  78. 

Water,  heating,  in  large  buildings,  43. 

Water,  heating,  in  large  institutions,  125. 

Water,  heating,  in  large  tanks,  124. 

Water,  heating,  in  large  tanks,  quantity 
of  steam  or  hot  water  required  to  do 
it,  127. 

Water  in  a  boiler,  calculating  the  quan- 
tity of,  155. 

Water-line,  how  low  should  it  be  to  in- 
sure satisfactory  working,  82. 

Water-line,  how  to  determine  for  differ- 
ent boilers,  155. 

Water,  method  of  heating  for  the  Hotel 
Warren,  126. 

Water,  method  of  heating  on  the 
"  Umbria."  96. 

Water-motor  for  driving  fan  in  France, 
211. 

Water,  raising  automatically  in  buildings, 
116  to  119. 

Water-pipe,  coating  with  coal-tar,  130. 

Water-tube  boilers  in  France,  206. 

Weights  of  standard  pipe,  74. 

West  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  York 
City,  heating  and  ventilation  of,  187 
to  192. 

Window-ventilators,  90,  91. 

Windows,  double  glazing  of,  economical 
results  of,  49. 

Woman's  method  of  regulating  a  steam- 
radiator,  56. 


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THE   EIGHTH   VOLUME 


THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER 


Comprises  the  twenty-six  weekly  issues  from  June  7  to  November  29,  1883,  and  is 
replete  with  interesting  information  for  every  intelligent  person. 

Among  the  many  important  articles  of  permanent  interest,  the  following  may  be 
mentioned  : 

Illustrated  Description  of  the  Plumbing, 
Heating,  Lighting,  and  Ventilation  in  the  fol- 
lowing Buildings:  The  Marquand  Houses, 
Apartment  house  at  Madison  Avenue  and 
Thirtieth  Street;  New  Library  Building,  Columbia 
College  ;  the  Duncan-Office  Building,  Hawthorne 
Apartment  House,  all  in  New  York  City.  Plumb- 
ing in  residence  of  Thos.  Craig,  Esq.,  Montreal ; 


Vital  Statistics .— By  Dr.  John  S.  Billings,  Sur- 
geon U.  S.  Army.  A  series  of  original  and  sug- 
gestive papers. 

Steam-Fitting  and  Steam-Heating.— -By 
"Thermus."  A  series  of  illustrated  articles  on 
modern  practice  in  the  fitting  of  buildings  with 
Steam  Apparatus. 

Letters  to  a  Young  Architect  on  Heating  and 
Ventilation.— toy  John  S.  Billings,  Surgeon  U.  S. 
Army.  A  continuation  of  the  Illustrated  series. 

The  Use  of  Lead  for  Conveying  and  Storing 
Water.- -By  Prof.  Wm.  Ripley  Nichols.  A 
valuable  contribution  giving  the  results  of  exper- 
ience and  investigation  up  to  the  present  time. 

English  Plumbing  Practice.— -By  a  Journey- 
man Plumber.  A  series  of  illustrated  practical 
articles  of  special  interest  to  practical  workers. 

Model  Stables. — Giving  illustrated  descriptions 
of  the  ventilation  and  drainage  of  the  stables  of 
Mr.  Wm.  Pickhardt  and  Mr.  Frank  Work,  New 
York. 

A  Series  of  Illustrated  Articles.— By  F.  B. 
Brock,  giving  the  expired  patents  on  water-closets, 
and  radiators  used  in  steam  heating.  Of  value  to 
those  interested  in  the  manufacture  of  these  ap- 
pliances. 

Illustrated  Description  of  the  Sewerage  and 
Water-Supply  of  Bunzlau,  in  Silesia,  in  1773.— 
By  W.  Doerich,  C.E.  Of  historical  interest. 

The  Liernur  System  of  Sewerage.— Carefully 
prepared  reviews  of  its  claim  in  connection  with  a 
report  on  the  system  of  Dr.  Overbeek  de  Meijer, 
and  a  discussion  of  its  applicability  for  Baltimore. 
The  Relation  of  Soils  to  Health.— Giving 
results  of  experiments  on  filtering  capacity  of  soils. 
By  Raphael  Pumpelly. 

A  merican  Practice  in  -warming  Buildings  by 


The    Government    Printing-office,   Washington ; 
The  Holborn  Restaurant,  London. 

A  Novel  and  Ornamental  Fire-Escape.— 
Illustrated. 

Plan  of  Improved  Tenements  for  Working 
People  erected  by  the  Corporation  of  Trinity 
Church. 

Plan  of  a  Public  Shower-Bath  in  Berlin. 

The  Turco-Russian  Baths  of  Astor  Place, 
New  York. — Illustrated  description. 

The  Vienna  Electrical  Exhibition.— A  series 
of  letters  by  an  expert  describing  features  of  the 
exhibition.  Illustrated. 

There  are  also  carefully-prepared  reviews  of  the 
reports  of  Health  Officials,  Water  Boards,  City 
Engineer,  and  the  current  literature  on  the  sub- 
jects treated  by  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER. 

Also  the  current  information  of  the  operation 
of  the  food  adulteration  laws,  record  of  rulings 
and  prosecutions,  and  copies  of  laws  ;  the  weekly 
and  monthly  mortality  table  of  the  principal  cities 
of  the  United  States,  together  with  a  large 
amount  of  home  and  foreign  health  notes,  the 
most  complete  collection  of  data  on  this  subject 
published  ;  answers  to  a  great  variety  of  practical 
questions  on  plumbing,  heating,  water-supply 
and  steam-fitting ;  record  of  patents,  and  the 
current  record  of  projected  buildings  and  construc- 
tion notes,  which  includes  information  of  special 
interest  to  contractors,  engineers  and  architects. 


Steam.— By  the  late  Robt.  Briggs,  M.  Inst.  C.E. 

Bound  in  cloth  -with  Index,  $3.     Postage,  40  cents. 

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other  use  for  which  it  may  be  desired. 

The  MOTOR  consists  of  two  cylinders    connected  together,  one  a  perfect  water-engine,  the 
Other  a  double-acting  force-pnmp  operated  by  the  former.     It  is  automatic,  noiseless  and  positive. 

All  parts  are  interchangeable  and  made  in  the  best  manner.    The  entire  working  machine  is 
made  of  bronze,  including  the  cylinders,  pistons,   cylinder-heads,  piston-rod,  valve-rod,  valves  and 
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THE    NINTH   VOLUME 


THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER. 


For  Civil,  Mechanical,  and  Sanitary  Engineers,  Architects,  Health  Officers,  Plumbers,  Steam-Fitters, 
and  general  readers  who  are  aware  of  the  rapidly  increasing  importance  of  the  study  of  all  topics  affect- 
ing the  public  health,  the  Ninth  Volume  of  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER,  including  the  26  weekly  issues 
from  December  6,  1883,  to  May  29,  1884,  contains  much  matter  of  great  value.  Its  articles  are  prepared 
by  the  best  authorities  in  the  several  departments,  and  are  at  the  same  time  written  to  be  understood  by 
intelligent  householders  who  are  not  themselves  either  Engineers  or  Sanitarians. 

The  following  are  among  the  subjects  discussed  in  the  Volume  : 


The  Duties  and  Responsibilities  of  State  and 
National  Officers  of  Health,  in  a  series  of  Edi- 
torials of  much  vigor. 

Carefully-prepared  Reviews  of  the  Reports  of 
State  and  Local  Boards  of  Health,  making  one 
of  the  most  complete  records  of  the  piesent  condi- 
tion of  Sanitation  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  which  is  accessible  to  the  reader. 

Mortality  Statistics  of  the  United  States,  pre- 
sented in  a  weekly  table  very  carefully  compiled, 
with  weekly  notes  on  the  health  of  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Europe. 

Vital  Statistics. — Several  valuable  papers  by 
Dr.  J.  S.  Billings,  on  the  computation  of  these 
Statistics. 

Numerous  important  articles  on  the  Adulter- 
ation of  Food. 

Improved  Tenement-Houses  as  a  Business  In- 
vestment.— Illustrations  of  Buildings  in  New 
York  and  London. 

The  Public  School-Houses  of  New  York  City. 
— An  incisive,  accurate  series  of  Reports  by  Spe- 
cial Agents,  with  illustrations  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary cases. 

Cottage  Hospitals. — The  first  numbers  in  a 
series  of  papers  by  Henry  C.  Burdett,  of  London, 
valuable  to  Physicians,  Architects  and  Sanitarians. 

Lofty  Buildings.— Their  disadvantages.  Two 
papers  by  Prof.  R.  Kerr,  of  Kings  College,  Lon- 
don. Valuable  in  connection  with  the  current  dis- 
cussion of  that  subject. 

Public  Baths  and  Wash-Houses.—^^  first  of 
a  series  of  papers  on  the  Public  Provision  of  Bath- 
ing Facilities  in  Cities. 

Plumbing  Apprenticeship. — A  discussion  by 
Master  and  Journeymen  Plumbers. 

Its  more  strictly  Technical  Articles  contain, 
among  others :  A  History  of  A  merican  Water- 
Works  Practice,  in  its  full  Reviews  of  Reports  of 
Water-Works  Engineers  and  City  Engineers. 


ngin 
this 


These  are  probably  the  fullest  notice  of  this  sub- 
ject which  is  accessible.  Comments  on  Notable 
Examples  of  Water-  Work  Construction  at  home 
and  abroad.  Reports  on  the  Quaker  Bridge  Dam 
(New  York  Water-Supply),  by  B.  S.  Church, 
C.  E.,  and  Isaac  Newton,  C.  E. 

The  Water-Supply  of  London.-  A  series  of 
papers  by  an  English  Water-Works  Engineer. 

Notes  on  Sewerage  Practice  in  the  United 
States  and  Europe. 

Original  Data  on  the  Memphis  Sewerage. 


A  thorough  Description  of  the  Ne 
Boston, 


Main 

Sewerage  System  of  Boston,  Mass.—  Elaborately 
illustrated.  These  articles,  both  text  and  illus- 
trations, were  prepared  by  one  of  the  Engineers 
in  charge  of  the  work. 

Illustrated  Descriptions  of  Plumbing,  Heating, 
Lighting  and  Ventilation  of  Notable  Buildings, 
showing  the  best  modern  practice.  These  include, 
among  others,  the  Metropolitan  Opera-House, 
Stables  of  Mr.  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  the  Manhat- 
tan Storage  Warehouse,  the  Russian  and  Turkish 
Baths  in  the  Hoffman  House,  the  Mutual  Life 
Insurance  Company's  Building,  and  Bridgeport 
Hospital.  These  descriptions  are  prepared  with 
great  care,  and  are  fully  illustrated. 

American  Plumbing  Practice.—  By  a  New 
York  Master  Plumber. 

English  Plumbing  Practice.—  By  an  English 
Journeyman  Plumber. 

These  papers  show  the  practice  of  the  trade  in 
the  two  countries  where  plumbing  is  best  devel- 
oped. 

The  Steam-Fitting  and  Steam-Heating  of 
Houses.—  By  a  Practical  Steam-Fitter,  under  the 
nom  deplume  "  Thermus." 

Gas  and  Electricity.  —  Processes  of  Gas  Manu- 
facture. The  Vienna  Electrical  Exhibition  is  de- 
scribed, with  illustrations,  in  the  Special  Corre- 
spondence of  an  American  Electrical  Engineer. 

Healthy  Foundations  for  Houses.  —  A  series  of 
papers  by  Glenn  Brown,  Architect. 

Correspondence.  —  Containing  a  great  variety  of 
inquiries  and  replies  by  the  best  obtainable  au- 
thorities on  Practical  Questions  affecting  House- 
Construction,  Plumbing,  Water-Supply,  Heating, 
Ventilation,  Sewer  Building,  Reservoir  Construc- 
tion, etc. 

American  Patent  Records  and  English 
Patent  Records.  —  Containing  Patents  granted  in 
the  department  of  manufacture  affected  by  Sani- 
tation in  all  its  branches,  Heating,  Plumbing, 
Ventilation,  etc. 

Notes  and  Discussions  on  Current  Topics  of 
Interest.  —  Among  these  have  been  articles  on  the 
Cause  of  the  Floods  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  the  Rela- 
tion of  Plumbers  to  State  Medicine,  Hints  to 
Housekeepers  on  the  Care  of  Mechanical  Appar- 
atus, Hygiene  of  Schools,  etc. 

Reports  of  Societies  and  Associations,  Awards 
of  Contracts,  the  Current  Record  of  Buildings 
Projected,  etc.,  are  furnished  by  Special  Corre- 
spondents. 


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THE   TENTH    VOLUME 


THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER 


Includes  the  twenty-six  weekly  issues  from  June  5  to  November  27,  1884. 
Among  the  articles  of  permanent  and  special  interest  may  be  mentioned 


Notable  Exhibits  at  the  International  Health 
Exhibition,  London. — These  illustrated  descrip- 
tions were  prepared  by  specialists,  and  possess 
more  than  usual  interest,  included  in  which  are 
illustrations  of  notable  lead-work,  of  special  in- 
terest to  plumbers  ;  description  of  Clark  s  process 
for  softening  and  purifying  water  ;  also  illustra- 
tions and  descriptions  of  various  sewage  and  water 
filters;  illustrated  description  of  steam  ovens; 
a  history  and  elaborate  description  of  the  various 
methods  of  separating  cream  by  mechanical  means, 
and  a  description  of  refrigerating  machines. 

London  Water  Companies. — Elaborate  descrip- 
tion, extending  through  several  numbers,  of  the 
interesting  exhibits  of  the  London  Water  Com- 
panies, showing  section  of  their  filter-beds,  and 
numerous  interesting  details  to  water  engineers. 
These  papers  were  prepared  by  a  well-known 
borough  engineer,  and  are  interesting  to  hydraulic 
engineers. 

Illustrated  Description  of  the  Plumbing, 
Heating,  Lighting,  and  Ventilating  of  Notable 
Buildings. — These  include,  among  others,  the  new 
building  of  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co.,  of 
New  York;  residence  of  Henry  G.  Marquand,  Esq., 
New  York-  residence  corner  Madison  Avenue  and 
Sixty-ninth  Street ;  Berkshire  Apartment-House ; 
and  residence  of  H.  H.  Cook,  Esq.,  New  York. 

Steam-Fitting  and  Steam-Heating— By  a 
practical  steam-fitter,  under  the  nom  de  plume  of 

Thermus."  Continuation  of  series.  Fully  illus- 
trated. 

Public  Urinals  of  Paris.— Description,  with 
sheet  of  illustrations. 

English  Plumbing  Practice.— By  an  English 
Journeyman  Plumber.  These  articles  are  by  a 
thorough  workman,  and  of  special  interest  to 
mechanics  in  any  part  of  the  globe. 

New  Method  of  Heating  Two  Boilers  by  One 
Water-Back. — With  illustrations  and  description. 

The  Syphonage  and  Ventilation  of  Traps.— 
Criticism  on  the  report  of  Messrs.  Putnam  and 
Rice  on  their  experiments  with  traps,  printed  in 
the  American  Architect,  and  correspondence 
thereon. 

Iron  as  a  Material  for  Purifying  Potable 
Water.— By  Prof.  William  Ripley  Nichols. 

Filtration  of  Certain  Saline  Solutions 
through  Sand.— Abstract  of  paper  by  Prof.  Wm. 
Ripley  Nichols. 

Healthy  Foundations  for  Houses.— Series  of 
papers,  illustrated,  by  Glenn  Brown,  Architect. 

Rights  of  Tenants  occupying  Insanitary 
Houses.— Opinion  of  Justice  Daly,  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  of  New  York. 

Preventative  Inoculation  for  Hydrophobia.— 
Comments  on  experiments  by  Prof.  Pasteur. 


Sewerage  of  Waterbury.— Description,  with 
illustrated  details. 

New  Orleans  Quarantine  Conference.— Reso- 
lutions adopted  and  editorial  comments  on  the 
same. 

Improvements  in  the  Hull  General  Infirmary. 
—Illustrations  giving  plans  and  elevation,  with 
descriptive  matter. 

Unbalanced  and  Lumped  Bids.—^n  elaborate 
communication  showing  the  methods  adopted  in 
France  and  other  European  countries  for  letting 
contracts  for  engineering  and  other  work. 

The  so-called  Plumbers'  Trade-Protection 
Controversy. — A  full  and  comprehensive  history 
of  the  misunderstandings  and  controversy  between 
certain  plumbing  societies  and  the  manufacturers 
and  dealers  in  plumbing  materials  in  the  United 
States  during  the  autumn  of  1884. 

International  Electrical  Exhibition  at  Phila- 
delphia.— Series  of  letters  describing  the  exhibi- 
tion, with  illustrations. 

System  of  Heating  Houses  in  Germany  and 
A  ustria. — Illustrated  article. 

Pest-Holes  in  New  York.— Series  of  illustrated 
descriptions  of  some  of  the  notable  insanitary 
tenement-houses.  Editorial  comments  charging 
the  Board  of  Health  with  want  of  energy  in  deal- 
ing with  these  nuisances. 

Cholera.— Dr.  Max  Von  Petterkofer's  views. 

Public  Baths  and  Wash-Houses.— Illustrated 
description  of  notable  public  baths  in  London. 

Blunders  in  Plumbing. — Series  of  suggestive 
articles,  with  illustrations,  showing  the  blunders 
made  in  arranging  the  plumbing  details  of  houses. 
Notable  by-passes  in  arranging  trap-ventilation. 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology. — Description  of  methods 
employed,  by  S.  H.  Woodbridge.  Fully  illustrated. 

Aeration  of  Surf  ace-Water.— Editorial  on 
report  of  Prof.  Albert  R.  Leeds,  on  the  results  of 
the  analysis  of  the  Schuylkill  water. 

Checking  the  Waste  of  Water  in  Boston.— 
Report  showing  very  satisfactory  results  due  to 
systematic  effort. 

Table  giving  Bids  in  Detail  for  Sections  A 
and  B  of  the  New  York  Aqueduct. -With 
editorial  comments  on  the  action  of  the  Commis- 
sioners in  rejecting  these  bids. 

Reports  by  Special  Correspondents— Of  the 
proceedings  of  the  International  Congress  of 
Hygiene  at  The  Hague;  American  Public  Health 
Association  at  St.  Louis;  the  Plumbers'  Congress, 
London;  the  Sanitary  Institute  at  Dublin: 
National  Convention  of  the  Master  Plumbers  of 
the  United  States  at  Baltimore. 


Bound  in  cloth,  with  Index,  $3.     Postage,  40  cents. 

THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER, 

140  William  Street, 
Obtainable  at  London  Office,  92  and  93  Fleet  Street,  for  15^.  New  York. 


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TIMOTHY    KIELEY,   1 1  West  13th  Street,  New  York. 


THE  ELEVENTH  VOLUME 


THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER 


Comprises  the  twenty-six  weekly  issues  from  December  4,  1884,  to  May  26,  1885. 
Among  the  features  and  articles  of  interest  may  be  mentioned  : 


Thirteen  Special  Architectural  Illustrations 
reproduced  from  drawings  made  by  artists  em- 
ployed by  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER,  the  subjects 

^Relu'dence  of  William  K.  Vanderbilt,  Esq.-R. 
M.  Hunt,  Architect. 

Residence  of  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  Esq. — Geo. 
B.  Post,  Architect. 

Residence  of  H.  H.  Cook,  Esq.— W.  Wheeler 
Smith,  Architect. 

The  old  Palace  of  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine, Nancy, 
France. 

The  Gotham  Building,  New  York.— E.  H. 
Kendall,  Architect. 

A  Balcony  of  the  Palace  at  Agra,  India. 

The  Dakota  Apartment  House,  N.  Y.— H.  J. 
Hardenberg,  Architect. 

The  Hemenway  Building,  Boston. — Bradlee, 
Winslow  &  Wetherill,  Architects. 

Residence  of  Miss  Catherine  Wolf,  Newport— 
Peabody  &  Stearns,  Architects. 

Residence  of  Chas.  L.  Tiffany,  Esq. — McKim, 
Mead  &  White,  Architects. 

Views  in  Old  London  Street,  International 
Health  Exhibition. 

A  Group  of  Country  Houses  near  Boston. —E. 
M.  Wheelright,  Arthur  Hooper  Dodd,  W.  A. 
Bates,  and  W.R.  Emerson,  Architects. 

Residence  of  H.  G.  Marquand,  Esq.,  New 
York.— R.  M.  Hunt,  Architect. 

The  Water-Supply  of  New  York  City.— An 
illustrated  history  of  the  progress  of  the  work  of 
the  great  Aqueduct,  with  a  map  of  the  available 
water-sheds. 

The  Gus  Question. — An  account  of  the  inves- 
tigation and  nroposed  regulation  of  the  business 
of  New  York  Companies,  also  a  report  on  the  sup- 
posed dangers  attending  the  use  of  water-gas. 

Specification  for  the  Plumbing  of  an  isolated 
residence  of  moderate  cost, accompanied  by  detail 
drawings. 

Disposal  of  Sewage. — A  paper  on  nitrification 
of  sewage  by  micro-organisms,  by  Prof.  R. 
Warington;  "Sewerage  of  a  Small  City,"  a 
report  by  E.  S.  Philbnck,  Esq.,  on  the  sewer- 
age of  Marlboro,  Mass.  ;  A  Discussion  of  the 
Report  by  the  Royal  Commission  on  London  dis- 
posal, which  contains  the  latest  conclusions  on 
the  disposal  of  sewage ;  Scheme  proposed  for 
Pots  dam,  Germany. 

Illustrated  description  of  the  Plumbing, 
Heating,  Lighting,  and  Ventilation  Features, 
included  in  which  are :  The  Cunard  Steamer 
Umbria  ;  Newcastle  Co.,  Del.,  Insane  Asylum  ; 
Residence  of  A.  I.  White,  Esq. ;  West  Presby- 
terian Church,  New  York  City  ;  W.  H.  Fogg, 
Esq.,  New  York ;  Manhattan  Company's  and 
Merchant's  Bank  Building,  New  York  City; 
The  Hemenway  Building, Boston,  Mass. ;  Auguste 


Richard,  Esq.,  New  York  ;  The  Bigelow  School, 
Newton,  Mass.;  I.  L.  Higginson,  Esq.,  Boston. 

Papers  on  Vital  Statistics.— 'By  John  S.  Bil- 
lings, M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Surgeon.  U.  S.  A.  A  con- 
tinuation of  this  valuable  series. 

Steam-Fitting:  and  Steam-Heating.— By 
"Thermus."  A  continuation  of  these  valuable 
and  interesting  articles.  Fully  illustrated. 

Driven  Wells. — An  exhaustive  paper  on  the 
theory  of  the  practical  value  of  Driven  Wells,  by 
J.  C.  Hoadley,  Mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Illustrated. 

Garbage  Disposal. — Description  of  several 
apparatuses  for  the  destruction  of  garbage. 

Hospital  Ships. — A  description  of  a  Floating 
Hospital,  invented  by  Dr.  P.  M.  Braidwood. 
With  longitudinal  section  and  deck  plans. 

Disinfection  and  Disinfectants.— Report  of 
Committee  of  the  American  Public  Health  Asso- 
ciation, and  other  papers,  including  notes  on  the 
treatment  of  foreign  rags. 

Dangerous  Blunders  in  Plumbing: — A  selec- 
tion of  cases  of  typical  blundersin  plumbingwork. 

The  World's  Exposition  at  New  Orleans.— 
An  illustrated  description  by  a  special  correspon- 
dent. 

Plans  for  Hospital  and  Almshouse  for  New 
York  State  Charities  Aid  Association,  with  de- 
scription. 

Privy  Sinks  for  Tenements.— A.  discussion  of 
privy  accommodations  for  tenement-house  popu- 
lation, growing  out  of  difficulties  encountered  by 
the  Boards  of  Health  of  Brooklyn  and  New  York 
City,  with  suggestions  by  the  Editor  of  THE  SAN- 
ITARY ENGINEER  for  an  improved  form  of  appa- 
ratus. 

A  Description  of  the  famous  Washington 
Monument  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

Zymotic  Diseases. — Carefully  prepared  articles 
on  the  care  and  management  ot  cases  of  scarlet 
fever,  typhoid  fever,  and  pneumonia. 

The  New  York  Trade-Schools.  -An  illustrated 
description  of  its  work  and  scope  ;  valuable  by- 
reason  of  the  growing  interest  in  schools  of  this 
character. 

English  Plumbing  Practice,  continued.  By 
an  English  Journeyman  Plumber.  A  series  of 
articles  valuable  to  working  plumbers  everywhere. 

Health  of  the  U.  S.  Army.  Monthly  reports 
by  the  Surgeon-General  on  the  Health  Statistics 
of  the  U.  S.  Forces. 

Construction  and  Building  Notes. — In  these 
columns  will  be  found  more  items'  of  interest  to 
contractors,  architects,  and  sanitary  engineers, 
such  as  projected  work  and  awards  of  contracts, 
results  of  competitions  for  Public  Buildings, 
Water-Supply,  Sewerage,  and  Gas- Works,  etc., 
than  isfound  in  other  periodicals  in  the  United 
States,  largely  collected  by  special  correspondents 


Bound  in  cloth,  -with  Index,  $3.     Postage,  40  cents. 

THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER, 

140  William  Street, 
Obtainable  at  London  Office,  92  and  93  Fleet  Street,  for  I5J.  New  York. 


JOHN  A.  McCONNELL  &  CO.. 

Steam-Pipe  and 
Boiler  Coverings. 

NINE  VARIETIES  OF  REED'S 
PATENT  SECTIONAL. 

Nearly    1,000  Miles  in  Use. 

Made  of  ASBESTOS  and  WOOL  FELT  chemically  treated.  This  is  the  original 
Sectional  Covering,  in  use  10  years,  marly  everywhere,  and  the  most  substantial  ever 
made.  Also  Hot-Blast,  Asbestos  Cement,  Mineral  Wool  and  Hair  Felt  Coverings 
of  every  description.  Write  tor  Circulars.  Price-List  and  Sample  and  name  thi« 
book. 

119  WATER  STREET,  PITTSBURG,  PA. 

W.  J.  BUTLER, 

CONTRACTOR  AND  MANUFACTURER  OF 

STEAM-HEATING  APPARATUS. 


Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings 

Of  All  Classes,  with  Steam  or  Hot  Water. 

Plans  and  Estimates  Furnished  on  Application.  Estimates 
made  on  Plumb-ng,  Gas-Fitting,  and  Green-House  Work. 
Work  done  in  any  part  of  the  Country. 

No.  8 REED  HOUSE,  NORTH  PARK  ROW, 
ERIE,   PA. 


JARECKI'S  SCREW-PLATE  and  PIPE-CUTTER. 


Illustrated  Catalogue    g  < 


IMPROVED 

ADJUSTABLE 
GUIDES. 

We  also  make  Hand  and  Power  Pipe  Machines. 

JARECKI    MFC.    CO.    (Limited),    ERIE,    PA. 


THE    TWELFTH     VOLUME 


THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER 


Comprises  the  26  weekly  issues  from  June  4,  1885,  to  November  26,  1885. 
Among  the  features  and  articles  of  interest  may  be  mentioned  : 

Inventions  Exhibition. — Illustrated  descrip- 
tions of  the  various  articles  exhibited  of  probable 
interest  to  readers  of  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER. 

Bids  for  Section  I.  of  the  New  Croton  A  que- 
duct. — Table  giving  engineer's  estimates  of  quan- 
tities, price  per  cubic  foot,  per  cubic  yard,  total 


Special   Architectural  Illustrations    repro- 
duced front  drawings  made  by  artists  employed 
by  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER,  of — 
Residence    of    I.  C.    Farwell,  Chicago,   Messrs. 

Burnham  &  Root,  Architects. 
Crumbaugh   Apartment  House,  Chicago,  Wheel- 

ock  &  Clay,  Architects. 
Church  in  the  Village  of  Dorat,  France. 
Casino    and     Parsonage,    Pullman,   111.,     S.     S. 

Beman,  Architect. 
Residence  of  Nathaniel  Thayer,  Boston,  Sturgis 

&  Bngham,  Architects. 
Military  Hospital  for  Hot  Climate,  designed  by 

Maj.Gen.   Sir  Andrew  Clarke,  R.  E..  A.I.C.E., 

and  E.  Ingress  Bell,  A.R.T.B.A.,  Architect. 
Church  at  Auvers,  Seine-et-Oise,  France. 
Private    Residence    at  Brookhne.  Mass.,  Geo.  E. 

Harney,  Architect. 
Brooklyn    Life    Ins.  Co.'s    Building,  F.  Carles 

Merry,  Architect. 
Hotel  Lallemant,  Bourges,  France. 
Union  Club,  Chicago,  Cobb  &  Frost,  Architects. 
Lodge    at    Countiy  Place  of  Chas.    J.    Osborn, 

Mamaroneck,  McKim,  Mead  &  White,  Archi- 
tects, and  Lodge  at  Private  Residence,  at  North 

Eastern.  Mass.,  H.  H.  Richardson,  Architect. 
Cancer  Hospital,  New  York,  Charles  C.  Haight, 

Architect. 
Entrances  to  Private  Residence  in  Boston,  Cabot 

&  Chandler,  Architects,  and  at  Albany,  H.  H. 

Richardson,  Architect. 
Residence  of  W.  L.  Skidmore.New  York,  R.  H. 

Robertson,  Architect 
There  are  also  illustrations  of  several  moderate 

cost  dwell  ings,  by  Architects  W.A. Bates,  Eames 

&  Young,  and  T.  M.  Clark. 

Water-Supply  of  New  York  City.— Continua- 
tion of  the  history  of  the  progress  of  the  work  of 
the  great  Croton  Aqueduct  (with  illustration, 
details  of  Gate  House,  etc.) 

Waste  of  Water  in  Liverpool.— Abstract  from 
the  report  of  Mr.  Parry  on  the  measures  to  further 
restrict  the  waste  of  water  in  Liverpool. 

Water-Supply  and  Sewerage  of  Venice.— By 
C.  H.  Blackall.With  illustrations  and  descriptions. 

Recent  Water-Works  Construction.— Welles- 
ley,  Mass.,  Water- Works. 

Illustrated  Description  of  Plumbing,  Heating, 
Lighting  and  Ventilation  Features.-lncluded 
in  which  are  Plumbing  and  Tank  Service  in  the 
Delaware  Apartment  House;  Plumbing  in  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  Building,  Brooklyn,  illustrations  and  de- 
scriptions ;  Plumbing  Regulations  in  Sacramento, 
Cal.;  Pumping  and  Water-Supply  in  the  new 
Cotton  Exchange  Building. 

Vitality  of  Cholera  Bacillus  and  the  means 
for  its  destruction.— Being  a  review  of  the  re- 
ported experiments  of  Drs.  Nicati  and  Reitsch. 

Report  of  a  series  of  trials  of  a  Warm-Blast 
apparatus  for  transferring  a  part  of  the  heat  of 
escaping  flue  gases  to  the  furnace.  By  J.  C.  How- 
land,  Boston,  Mass. 

Lighting  and  Ventilating  Ordinary  Apart- 
ments by  Gas.— "By  William  Sugg.  Being  portion 
of  a  paper  read  at  the  meeting  of  the  Gas  Insti- 
tute. 

Steam-Heating  Apparatus  in  Mutual  Life 
InsCo.'s  Building.— Description  and  illustrations. 
Specifications/or  Vitrified  Stoneware  Pipe 
Sewer.— By  E.  Kuichling. 
Sound  in  cloth,  with  index,  $3.     Postage  40  cents. 

THE   SANITARY   ENGINEER, 

140  William  Street,  New  York. 
Obtainable  at  London  Office,  92  and  93  Fleet  Street,  for  15*. 


if  bid  of  each  contractor  on  each  item  of  specifi- 
cation, and  grand  total  of  each  contractor  for  the 
whole  work. 

Hospital  at  National  Soldiers"  Home,  Hamp- 
ton, K«.--*ully  illustrated. 

Housing  of  the  Working  Classes  in  England 
and  Wales.— Full  abstract  from  the  report  of  the 
Royal  Commission. 

Illustrations  and  Description  of  the  details 
of. Steam  and  Ventilating.  Apparatus  used  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe. 

Some  Practical  Results  in  Heating  and  Venti- 
lation as  Observed  in  the  Mass.  Inst.  of  Tech- 
nology.--By  S.  H.  Woodbridge,  A.  M. 

Garbage  and  Refuse  Cremator.— Section  and 
Description. 

Takhtsingji  Hospital.— Illustration  and  De- 
scription. 

Royal  Monnaie  Theatre,  Brussels.— Steam- 
heating  and  mechanical  ventilation  of. 

Grant  Monument. — Correspondence  and  sug- 
gestions over  the  proposition  to  secure  a  design 
for  the  Grant  Monument. 

Comme nt  on  provisions  of  American  Institute 
of  Architects'  bill  to  provide  for  the  erection  of 
Government  buildings. 

Moses  Taylor  Hospital.— Illustration  and 
description. 

Repairs  to  the  Cooper  Institute.— Elaborately 
illustrated,  and  a  valuable  article  to  architects, 
builders,  and  civil  engineers  ;  this  being  the  first 
building  in  which  iron  beams  were  used,  showing 
the  faults  in  the  original  plan  and  what  has  been 
done  to  remedy  them. 

Natural  vs.  Artificial  CV>»««*s.— Communi- 
cations  on  tnis  subject,  with  table  comprising  tests 
of  cements  and  brick.  By  F.  Collingwood,  and 
correspondence  from  others. 

Circular  vs.  Rectangular  Wards.— Contro- 
versy on  this  subject  between  H.  Saxon  Snell  and 
Henry  C.  Burdett.  Of  use  to  architects  and 
those  interested  in  hospital  construction. 

Sta  ndard  Pipe  a  nd  Pipe-  Th  reads. — Paper  read 
before  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  En- 
gineers. 

Deta il  of  Plumbing  in  Manhattan  and  Mer- 
chants' Bank  Building,  New  York. 

Steam-Fitting  and  Steam  Heating.  By  Ther- 
mus.  A  continuance  of  these  valuable  articles. 
(Illustrated.) 

English  Plumbing  Practice,  continued.  By 
an  English  Journeyman  Plumber.  A  series  of 
articles  valuable  to  working  plumbers  everywhere. 

Construction  and  Building  Notes.-\n  these 
columns  will  be  found  more  items  of  interest  to  con- 
tractors, architects,  and  sanitary  engineers,  such, 
as  projected  work  and  awards  of  contracts,  re- 
sults of  competitions  for  Public  Buildings, 
Water-Supply,  Sewerage,  and  Gas-Works,  etc., 
than  is  found  in  other  periodicals  in  the  United 


States,  largely 


in  other  per 
collected  b 


special  correspond- 


CORNER  RADIATOR. 


T.  H.  BROOKS  &  CO.,       ' 

MANUFACTURERS  OF 

Steam-Heating  Apparatus, 

CLEVELAND,  O. 

NEW  PATTERNS. 
THE  LARGEST  LIST  OF  SIZES. 

THE   HANDSOMEST   RADIATORS  IN 
THE  MARKET. 

SPECIALLY     DESIGNED     IN     ORNAMENTA- 
TION FOR  ELEGANT  PRIVATE 
RESIDENCES. 

Send  for  Catalogue. 


Nason   Manufacturing  Co., 

MANUFACTURERS.  ESTABLISHED  IN  1841. 

No.  71  BEEKMAN  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


Fully  Illustrated 


Vertical,  Wrought-Iron,  Welded 
Tube  Radiators,  Ventilating  -  Fans, 
Steam  -  Traps,  Glue  -  H  eaters,  Etc. , 
"Griffin"  Foot-Rail  Brackets,  Cor- 
ner  and  End  Fittings. 

Wrought  and  Cast  Iron  Pipe,  Valves 
Fittings,  etc.,  and  General  Supplies 
for  Water,  Gas,  and  Steam. 

Valves,  Gauges,  and  Fittings  for 
Anhydrous  and  Aqua  Ammonia. 


ue  furnished  upon  Application. 


4 HE  THIRTEENTH  VOLUME  OF  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER  comprises  the  twenty, 
six  weekly  issues  from  December  3,  1885,  to  May  27,  1886. 


SPECIAL  ARCHITECTURAL  ILLUSTRATIONS 
Residence  of  Charles  J.  Osborn,  Esq.,  Mamaroneck, 

N.  Y.    Mckim,  Mead  &  White,  architects,  N.  Y. 
Residence    of    George    F.    Baker,  Esq.,  Seabright, 

N.  J.     Bruce  Price,  architect,  New  York. 
The  Court  of  the  Hotel  Lallemant,  at  Bourges,  France. 
Church  of  St.  Julien,  Bnoude,  Auvergne,  France. 
Residence  of  S.  T.  Everett,  Cleveland,  O.     C.  F.  & 

J.  A.  Schweinfurth,  architects,  Cleveland,  O. 
Interior  of  residence  of  George  F.  Baker,  Seabright, 

N.  J.     Bruce  Price,  architect,  New  York. 
Country  residence  near  Philadelphia.     Wilson  Eyre, 

jr.,  architect,  Philadelphia. 
The  Cambridge  Hospital,  Cambridge,  Mass.  .  Cham- 

berlin  &  Whidden,  architects,  Boston. 
The  Western  Spires  of  the  Cologne  Cathedral. 
American  Unitarian   Association   Building,  Boston. 

Peabody  &  Stearns,  architects,  Boston. 
Entrance  to  residence  of  W.  K.  Vanderbilt.     R.  M. 

Hunt,  architect,  New  York. 
Residences  near  Boston.     H.  H.  Richardson,  archi- 


, 

The  House  of  Jacques  Coeur,  Bourges,  France. 
Crematorium  at  Buffalo,  N. 
architects,  Buffalo. 


tect,  Boston,  and  W.  R.  Emerson,  architect. 
ourges,  France. 
Y.  Green  &  Wickes, 

St.  Stephen's  College,  Annandale,  N.  Y.   Charles  C. 

Haight,  architect,  New  York. 
A  Group  of  Romanesque  Capitals. 
Porch  of  the  First  Spiritual  Temple.  Boston.  Hart- 

well  &  Richardson,  architects,  Boston. 
The  Stables  at  Marple  Hall,  England. 


Chicago  residences.     Cobb  &  Frost,  architects,  Chi- 
ago,  and  Whee 

Commercial  Buildings.     Kussell  btur,_ 
ect,  New  York,  and  H.   H.   Richardson,  archt. 


Frost,  architectSj  Chi- 

cago, and  Wheelock  &  Clay,  architects,  Chicago. 
Two  Commercial  Buildings.     Russell  Sturgis,  archi- 


ella,  Italy, 
architect. 
&  Root,  architects. 
York.     Babb, 


Interior  of  a  residence 


Maria,  at  . 
.     Arthur  '. 


Residence  at  Chicago.     Burnham  &  Root,  ai 

The   De  Vinne  Press  Building,  New  York 
Cook,  &  Willard,  architects,  New  York. 

The  Cathedral  at  Burgos,  Spain. 

Ames  Building,  Boston.     H.  H.  Richardson,  archt. 

Besides  these  there  are  also  twenty-six  illustrations 
of  dwellings  of  moderate  cost,  specially  selected,  with 
plans. 

Cottage  (Small)  Hospital  Construction.— -By  H.  C. 
Burdett.  (Series  continued.) 

Lewis/tarn  Public  Baths,  England. -Plan  and 
description. 

Glasgow  Corporation  Baths  and  Wash-Houses. — 
Illustrated. 

The  Spires  of  the  Cologne  Ca/>Wr<z/.-Illustrated 
details  and  description  by  C.  H.  Blackall. 

Fire-Proof  Construction. — A  series  of  articles  by  F. 
Collingwood,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

New  Civil  Hospital  at  Antwerp.— Illustrations  and 
description. 

Details  of  Construction  of  a  Crematorium  at  Buf- 
falo, N.  Y. 

Hospital  Ship  Castalia.— Floating  hospital  for  small- 
pox patients.  (Illustration  and  description.) 

The  Construction  of  a  heavy  fire-proof  building  on  a 
compressible  soil.  Illustrated  by  W.  L.  B.  Jenney,  archi- 
tect, Chicago. 

Details  of  construction  of  iron  tower  of  Cologne. 
Cathedral.  Illustrated  by  C.  H.  Blackall, architect. 

ENGINEERING.— Among  the  special  articles  of  per- 
manent engineering  interest  may  be  mentioned  : 

The  Hell  Gate  Improvement. — A  specially  prepared 
illustrated  article  by  Lieut.  George  McC.  Derby,  Corps 
of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  assistant  to  Gen.  John 
Newton  on  the  work. 

Repairs  to  the  Dam  at  Holyoke,  Mass. 

The  Report  of  Sewerage  Scheme  for  the  Valleys  of 
the  Mystic  and  Blackstone.  A  Review. 


.  Mary's  Falls  Canal.— A.  full  description  of  this 


work,  with  severa 

Schenectady,  N. 
description. 


jes  of  illustrations. 

'.,    Sewer  System.  —  Illustrated 


Tunnel   for    Foot-Passengers 
Description  and   illustrations,  with    referer 


Stockholm.  — 
the 

doption  of  the  freezing  method  jn  dealing  with 
treacherous  soil. 

Underground  Railways  in  London.  —  A  description, 
with  illustrations,  of  engineering  features,  including  the 
underpinning  of  buildings  in  connection  with  a  refer- 
ence to  the  proposed  Broadway  Underground  Railway. 
The  commencement  of  a  series  of  illustrated  articles  on 
this  important  municipal  problem. 

Disposal   of  Sewage    of  Almshouse    and   Insane 
Asylum,  New  Providence,  R.  /.,  from  plan  by  Samuel 
Gray,  C.  E.  —  Illustrations  and  description. 
ater 


-Works    Co 


ctio 


nd  Management.— 


Tabulated  statement  showing  different  modes  of  run- 
ning service-pipes  and  prices  charged  for  tapping 
water-mains. 

Recent  Water-Works  Construction—  A  series  of 
illustrated  articles  describing  the  works  of  different 
cities:  Dubuque  ;  Hyde  Park,  Mass.;  Liberty,  Va.; 
Waterbury,  Conn. 

Slipping  of  the  Slope  Paving  of  the  Reservoir  at 
Lowell,  Mass. 

The  Vyrnwy  Masonry  Dam.  —  Description  and 
illustration. 

Detailed  Bids  for  Sections  12,  13,  and  14,  New 
Croton  Aqueduct,  N.  Y. 

The  New  Croton  Aqueduct.—  Continuation  of  the 
series  of  illustrated  articles  describing  this  great  work. 
PLUMBING,  HEATING,  AND  VENTILATION. 

English  Plumbing  Practice.—  By  a  Journeyman 
Plumber.  A  continuation  of  these  very  practical  and 
useful  illustrated  articles. 

Steam-Fitting-  and  Steam-Heating.—  By  Thermus. 


antinuation  of  these  valuable  illustr 


icles. 


Heating  and  Ventilation  of  Imperial  Houses  of 
Parliament,  Berlin.  (Illustrated.) 

Heating-  and  Ventilation  of  the  Cambridge  Hos- 
pital, Cambridge,  Mass. 

The  Joshua  Bates  School,  Boston.— Illustrations  and 
description  of  heating,  ventilation,  and  plumbing. 

Stables  of  Hon.  George  Peabody  Wetmore,  Newport, 
R.  I.  Details  of  the  arrangement  and  fittings.  (Fully 
illustrated.) 

Details  of  Plumbing  in  residence  of  Mr.  William  A. 
Burnham,  Boston  ;  Mr.  Edward  Kilpatnck,  New  York  ; 
Residence  at  Newport,  R.  !.•  George  Lewis,  Jr.,  New 
York  ;  Henry  C.  Valentine,  New  York  ;  Athletic  Club, 
New  York. 

Form  of  Plumbing  Specification  for  an  isolated 
country  house  valued  at  $3,000. 

Specimen  of  Corroded  Lead-Work  from  Naval 
Museum  of  Hygiene,  Washington,  showing  action  of 
sewer-gas  on  unventilated  soil-pipes  and  traps. 

Examples  of  Dangerous  Plumbing-Work  in  Phila- 
delphia.— Illustrated.  By  Rudolph  Hering,  C.  E. 

Besides  those  enumerated,   a  great  variety  of  illus- 
trated descriptions,  answers  to  questions,  novelties,  etc. 
as  well  as  references  to  matter  of  current  interest  to 
these  industries. 
SANITATION. 

The  usual  reviews  of  reports  of  health  officers,  and 
comments  on  current  questions  of  interest  to  sani- 
tarians and  health  officers. 

Construction  and  Building  Notes.— In  these  col- 
umns will  be  found  more  items  of  interest  to  Contrac- 
tors, Architects,  and  Engineers,  such  as  projected  work 
and  awards  of  contracts,  results  of  competitions  for 
Public  Buildings,  Water-Supply,  Sewerage,  and  Gas- 
Works,  etc.,  than  is  found  in  other  periodicals  in  the 
United  States,  largely  collected  by  special  corre- 
spondents. 


Bound  in  cloth,  with  index,  $3.    Postage,  40  cents.    THE     SANITARY   ENGINEER,    140    William 
Street,  New  Yorh.     Obtainable  at  London  Office.  92  and^  Fleet  Street,  for  15*. 


THE    WILSON      BOILER— which    has    gained    its     splendid 
reputation    wholly    on    its    merits   as   a   rapid   generator    of 
steam  ;    its   self-feeding,   base-burning,   and   automatic   regu- 
lating  qualifications ;      its     large 
and     available     heating    surfaces 
in     direct     contact    with     water 
spaces  ;    its   ease   in   setting   and 
management  ;  its  durability,  price, 
economy,   and   all    the   essentials 
of    a     first-class     apparatus     for 
thoroughly  Heating  Private  Dwell- 
ings,   Churches,    School  Buildings, 
Hotels,  Banks,   and    other    offices, 
etc. — now    stands    at    the    head 
of    the     column.       Adopted     by 
the   leading  steam  firms   of    the 
country  and   fully   approved  by  the   public   wherever  in   use. 
Circulars   and    prices   sent   on   application. 


—  T  H  E  — 


WILSON  BOILER  CO., 

FOUNDRY,   WESTFIELD,   N.  Y. 
NEW  YOKK  OFFICE,  66  CORTLANDT  STREET. 


'American    Sanitary   Engineering. 


BY  EDWARD  S.  PHILBRICK,  C.  E. 


Fully  Illustrated -with  thitty-two  Figures  and  Plans  of  Sewers  and  Sewer-  Appliances, 
Ventilating  and  House-Draining  Apparatus,  etc. 

AMERICAN  SANITARY  ENGINEERING,  by  Edward,  S.  Philbrick,  C.  E.,  is  written 
by  a  gentleman  of  great  experience  in  planning  saiiitary  works,  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  difficulties  met  with  in  constructing  such  works  in  climates  of  greatly 
varying  temperatures.  It  contains  a  very  careful  summary,  in  brief  compass,  of  the 
principles  of  city,  suburban,  and  household  sanitation.  The  subject  of  which  it 
treats  is  generally  recognized  to  be  of  steadily  growing  interest  and  importance,  not 
only  to  the  architect,  engineer,  and  builder,  but  also  to  the  general  reader  and  house- 
holder, who  has  a  vital  concern  in  understanding  the  principles  which  secure  health  in 
his  home.  In  this  book  has  been  presented  for  the  first  time  in  this  country  a  resume 
of  the  entire  subject  in  a  clear  and  convenient  form  for  professional  and  non-profes- 
sional men.  Its  value  was  promptly  recognized  and  testified  to  by  the  public  press, 
some  of  the  notices  of  which  we  quote  : 

OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS. 

The  great  interests  of  health  and  life,  the  dan- 
gers which  threaten  both,  and  the  means  of  pre- 
serving the  one  and  prolonging  the  other,  are 
treated  in  these  lectures  in  a  manner  to  attract 
public  attention.  There  are  no  subjects  of  house- 
hold or  municipal  economy  more  pressing  or  im- 
portant than  the  ventilation  and  drainage  of 
houses,  the  construction  and  ventilation  of  sewers, 


the 


the  sanitary  interests  of  crowded  cities  and 
villages ;  and  Mr.  Philbrick's  experience  as  an 
engineer  and  an  expert  on  many  of  these  ques- 
tions especially  qualifies  him  to  treat  them 
intelligently.  Every  householder  and  every 
builder  will  find  in  this  volume  suggestions  of 
great  value.—  Boston  Daily  Ad-vert iser. 

A  dozen  lectures  covering  in  a  peculiarly  sug- 
gestive and  practical  manner  the  subjects  of 
ventilation,  house  and  town  drainage,  sewerage, 
and  the  like.  The  matter  is  presented  in  a  way 
well  calculated  to  command  attention  from  home- 
makers  as  well  as  house-builders  and  sanitary 
engineers.  The  methods  and  appliances  recom- 
mended have  been  chosen  for  their  fitness  to  meet 
the  conditions  of  our  climate,  our  modes  of  life, 
and  more  obvious  sanitary  needs. — Scientific 
American. 

A  useful  contribution  to  the  common-sense  lit- 
erature of  the  day,  and  one  which  largely  con- 
cerns the  dwellers  in  our  great  municipalities, 
which  are  frequently  managed  on  the  reverse  of 
sanitary  principles. — The  Evening  Mail. 

The  Sanitary  Engineer  has  just  issued  a  little 
volume  on  the  subject  that  will  no  doubt  prove 
of  interest  to  the  people  of  all  our  large  cities.  It 
is  a  compilation  of  twelve  lectures  delivered  be- 
fore the  School  of  Industrial  Science  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  in  1880, 
and  contains  many  valuable  hints  that  builders 
would  do  well  to  take  advantage  oi.—New  York 
Herald. 

Bound  in  cloth,  $2.00.         Postage  paid. 


This  book  consists  of  a  series  of  lectures  deliv- 
ered at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, in  Boston.  We  are  glad  that  the  interest 
they  awakened  has  led  to  their  present  publica- 
tion in  connected  form.  Not  merely  sanitary 
engineers,  but  all  householders  and  dwellers  in 
houses  who  are  concerned  with  the  vital  questions 
of  ventilation  and  sewerage,  will  welcome  this 
suggestive  and  instructive  volume.  Men  do  not 
wish  to  be  left  at  the  mercy  of  builders  and 
plumbers  ;  yet  too  of  ten  they  are  helpless  victims, 
because  they  do  not  know  where  to  go  for  com- 
petent and  disinterested  opinions  concerning 
rival  methods  and  devices.  The  literature  of  the 
subject  consists  largely  in  puffs  of  patent  con- 
trivances, proceeding  from  their  inventors  or 
vendors.  Mr.  Philbrick's  opinions  are  free  from 
this  ground  of  suspicion,  and  are,  moreover,  based 
upon  the  condition  of  American  society,  which 
is  not  always  the  case  with  those  of  foreign 
authors. — Engineering  and  Mining  J  urnal, 

The  Lectures  on  American  Sanitary  Engi- 
neering, recently  delivered  by  Edward  S.  Phil- 
brick  before  the  School  of  Industrial  Science  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  and 
printed  in  part  in  the  Sanitary  Engineer  and 
the  American  Architect ',  have  been  published  in 
a  slim  octavo  volume  from  the  office  of  the 
Sanitary  Engineer,  New  York,  with  thirty  illus- 
trations. These  lectures  furnish  the  reader,  pro- 
fessional or  unprofessional,  with  a  very  thorough 
and  intelligent  discussion  of  a  very  important 
subject. — Boston  Journal. 

The  ventilation  of  buildings,  the  drainage  of 
towns,  and  systems  of  sewerage  receive  much 
careful  and  thoughtful  attention.  Contains 
much  valuable  information,  and  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  householder. — American  Ma- 
chinist. 


THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER, 

140  William  Street, 
Obtainable  at  London  Office,  92  and  93  Fleet  Street,  for  los.  New  York. 


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SECOND    EDITION. 


Plumbing  and  House-Drainage 
Problems ; 


Questions,    Answers,    and    Descriptions    from    THE    SANITARY    ENGINEER. 

With  142  Illustrations. 

[FROM  THE  PREFACE.] 

' '  A  feature  of  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER  is  its  replies  to  questions  on  topics  that 
come  within  its  scope,  included  in  which  are  Water-Supply,  Sewage  Disposal,  Ventila- 
tion, Heating,  Lighting,  House-Drainage,  and  Plumbing.  Repeated  inquiries  con- 
cerning matters  often  explained  in  its  columns  suggested  the  desirability  of  putting  in 
a  convenient  form  for  reference  a  selection  from  its  pages  of  questions  and  comments 
on  various  problems  met  with  in  house-drainage  and  plumbing,  improper  work  being 
illustrated  and  explained  as  well  as  correct  methods.  It  is  therefore  hoped  that  this 
book  will  be  useful  to  those  interested  in  this  branch  of  sanitary  engineering." 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  : 


DANGEROUS  BLUNDERS  IN  PLUMBING. 

Running  Vent-Pipe  in  Improper  Places— Con- 
necting Soil-Pipes  with  Chimney-Flues—By- 
Passes  in  Trap-Ventilation,  etc.  Illustrated. 

A  Case  of  Reckless  Botching.     Illustrated. 

A  Stupid  Multiplication  of  Traps.  Illustrated. 

Plumbing  Blunders  in  a  Gentleman's  Country 
House.  Illustrated. 

A  Trap  Made  Useless  by  Improper  Adjustment 
of  Inlet  and  Outlet  Pipes.  Illustrated. 

Unreliability  of  Heated  Flue  as  a  Substitute 
for  Proper  Trapping.  Illustrated. 

Need  of  Plans  in  Doing  Plumbing-Work. 

HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 

City  and  Country  House-Drainage — Removal 
of  Ground-Water  from  Houses— Trap-Ventila- 
tion— Fresh-Air  Inlets — Drain-Ventilation  by 
Heated  Flues— Laying  of  Stoneware  Drains. 

Requirements  for  the  Drainage  of  Every  House. 

Drainage  of  a  Saratoga  House.     Illustrated. 

Ground-Water  Drainage  of  a  Country-House. 
Illustrated. 

Ground- Water  Drainage  of  a  City  House.  Il- 
lustrated. 

Fresh-Air  Inlets. 

The  Location  of  Fresh-Air  Inlets  in  Cities. 
Illustrated. 

Fresh- Air  Inlets.    Illustrated. 

Air-Inlets  on  Drains. 

The  Proper  Way  to  Lay  Stoneware  Drains. 

Risks  Attending  the  Omission  of  Traps  and  Re  - 
ring  on  Drain- Ventilation  by  Flues.  Illustrated. 

The  Tightness  of  Tile-Diains 

Danger  of  Soil-Pipe  Terminals  Freezing  unless 
Ends  are  without  Hoods  or  Cowls. 

Objection  to  Connecting  Bath-Waste  with 
Water-Closet  Trap. 

How  to  Adjust  the  Inlets  and  Outlets  of  Traps. 
Illustrated. 

How  to  Protect  Trap  when  Soil-Pipe  is  used  as 
a  Leader. 

Size  of  Ventilating-Pipes  for  Traps. 

How  to  Prevent  Condensation  Filling  Vent- 
Pipes. 

Ventilating  Soil-Pipes. 

How  to  Prevent  Accidental  Discharge  into  Trap 
Vent-Pipe. 

Why  Traps  should  be  Vented. 


lying. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Syphoning  Water  through  a  Bath-Supply. 
Illustrated. 

Emptying  a  Trap  by  Capillary  Attraction.  Il- 
lustrated. 

As  to  Safety  of  Stop-Cocks  on  Hot  Water 
Pipes. 

How  to  Burnish  Wiped  Joints. 

Admission  to  the  New  York  Trade  Schools. 

Irregular  Water  Supply.     Illustrated. 

Hot  Water  from 'the  Cold  Faucet,  and  how  to 
Prevent  it.  Illustrated. 

Disposal  of  Bath  and  Basin  Waste  Water. 

To  Prevent  Corrosion  of  Tank  Lining. 

Number  of  Water  Closets  Required  in  a  Fac- 
tory. 

Size  of  Basin  Wastes  and  Outlets. 

Tar  Coated  Water  Pipe  Affect  Taste  of  Water. 

How  to  Deal  with  Pollution  of  Cellar  Floors. 

How  to  Heat  a  Bathing  Pool. 

Objections  to  Galvanized  Sheet  Iron  Soil  Pipe. 

To  Prevent  Rust  in  a  Suction  Pipe. 

Automatic  Shut  Off  for  Gas  Pumping  Engines 
when  Tank  is  Full.  Illustrated. 

Paint  to  Protect  Tank  Linings. 

Vacuum  Valves  not  always  Reliable. 

Size  of  Water  Pipes  in  a  House. 

How  to  Make  Rust  Joints. 

Covering  for  Water  Pipes. 

Size  of  Soil  Pipe  for  an  ordinary  City  House. 

How  to  Construct  a  Sunken  Reservoir  to  Hold 
Two  Thousand  Gallons. 

Where  to  Place  Burners  to  Ventilate  Flues  by 
Gas  Jets.  Illustrated. 

How*  to  Prevent  Water  Hammer. 

Why  a  Hydraulic  Ram  does  not  Work. 

Air  in  Water  Pipes. 

Proper  Size  of  Water  Closet  Outlets. 

Is  a  Cement  Floor  Impervious  to  Air  ? 

Two  Traps  to  a  Water  Closet  Objectionable. 

Connecting  Bath  Wastes  to  Water  Closet 
Traps.  Illustrated. 

Objections  to  Leaching  Cesspool  and  need  of 
Fresh  Air  Inlet. 

The  Theory  of  the  Action  of  Field's  Syphon. 

How  to  Disinfect  a  Cesspool. 

Drainage  into  Cesspools. 

Slabs  for  Pantry  Sinks- Wood  vs.  Marble. 

Test  for  Well  Pollution. 

Cesspool  for  Privy  Vault. 


PLUMBING  AND  HOUSE-DRAINAGE  PROBLEMS— Continued. 


Corrosion  of  Lead  Lining. 

Size  of  Flush  lank  to  deal  with  Sewage  of  a 
Small  Hospital. 

Details  of  the  Construction  of  a  House-Tank. 
Illustrated. 

The  Construction  of  a  Cistern  under  a  House. 

To  Protect  Lead  Lining  of  a  Tank,  and  Cause 
of  Sweating. 

Stains  on  Marble. 

Lightning  Strikes  Soil  Pipes. 

Will  the  Contents  of  a  Cesspool  Freeze  ? 

Bad  Tasting  Water  from  a  Coil.    Illustrated. 

How  to  Fit  Sheet  Lead  in  a  Large  Tank. 

Why  Water  is  "  Milky  "  When  First  Drawn. 

Material  for  Water  Service  Pipes. 

Carving  Tables.    Illustrated. 

Is  Galvanized  Pipe  Dangerous  for  Soft  Spring 
Water. 

How  to  Arrange  Hush  Pipes  in  Cisterns  to  Pre- 
vent Syphoning  Water  Through  Ball  Cock. 

Depth  of  Foundations  to  Prevent  Dampness  of 
Site. 

Where  to  Place  a  Tank  to  get  Good  Discharge 
at  Faucet. 

Self  Acting  Water  Closets.    Illustrated. 

Wind  Disturbing  Seal  of  Trap. 

How  to  Draw  Water  from  a  Deep  Well. 

Cause  of  Smell  of  Well  Water. 

Absorption  of  Light  by  Gas  Globes. 

Defective  Drainage.     Illustrated. 

Fitting  Basins  to  Marble  Slabs.   Illustrated. 

Intermediate  Tanks  for  the  Water  Supply  of 
High  Buildings.  Illustrated. 

How  to  Construct  a  Filtering  Cistern.  Illus- 
trated. 

Objections  to  Running  Ventilating  Pipe  Into 
Chimney-Flue. 

Size  of  Water  Supply  Pipe  for  Dwelling  House. 

Faulty  Plan  of  a  Cesspool.    Illustrated. 

Connecting  Refrigerator  Wastes  with  Drains. 
Illustrated. 

Disposing  of  Refrigerator  Wastes.  Illustrated. 

Pumping  Air  From  Water  Closet  into  Tea 
Kettle  as  Result  of  Direct  Supply  to  Water 
Closets.  Illustrated. 

Danger  in  Connecting  Tank  Overflows  with 
Soil  Pipes. 

Arrangement  of  Safe  Wastes.    Illustrated. 

The  kind  of  Men  Who  do  not  Like  the  Sani- 
tary Engineer 

What  is  Reasonable  Plumbers'  Profit. 

HOT  WATER  CIRCULATION  IN  BUILD- 
INGS. 

Bath  Boilers.    Illustrated. 
Setting  Horizontal  Boilers.    Illustrated. 


How  to  Secure  Circulation  Between  Boilers  in 
Different  Houses.  Illustrated. 

Connecting  One  Boiler  with  Two  Ranges. 
Illustrated. 

Taking  Return  Below  Boiler.    Illustrated. 

Trouble  with  Boiler. 

An  Ignorant  Way  of  Dealing  with  a  Kitchen 
Boiler.  Illustrated. 

Returning  into  Hot  Water  Supply  Pipe.  Illus- 
trated. 

Where  should  Sediment  Pipe  from  Boiler  be 
connected  with  Waste-Pipe  ? 

Several  Flow  Pipes  and  one  Circulation  Pipe. 
Illustrated. 

How  to  Run  Pipes  from  Water  Back  to  Boiler. 
Illustrated. 

Hot  Water  Circulation  when  Pipes  from  Boiler 
pass  under  the  Floor.  Illustrated. 

Heating  a  Room  from  Water  Back. 

The  Operation  of  Vacuum  and  Safety  Valves. 
Illustrated. 

Preventing  Collapse  of  Boilers. 

Collapse  of  a  Boiler.    Illustrated". 

Explosion  of  Water  Backs. 

A  Proposed  Precaution  against  Water  Back 
Explosions.  Illustrated. 

The  Bursting  of  Kitchen  Boilers  and  Connect- 
ing Pipes.  Illustrated. 

Giving  out  of  Lead  Vent  Pipes  from  Boilers  in 
an  Apartment  House.  Illustrated. 

Connecting  a  Kitchen  Boiler  with  One  or  More 
Water  Backs.  Illustrated. 

New  Method  of  Heating  Two  Boilers  by  One 
Water  Back.  Illustrated. 

Plan  of  Horizontal  Hot  Water  Boiler.  Illus- 
trated. 

HOT    WATER    SUPPLY    IN    VARIOUS 
BUILDINGS. 

Kitchen  and  Hot  Water  Supply  in  the  Resi- 
dence of  Mr.  W.  K.  Vanderbilt,  New  York. 
Illustrated. 

Kitchen  and  Hot  Water  Supply  in  the  Resi- 
dence of  Mr.  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  New  York. 
Illustrated. 

Kitchen  and  Hot  Water  Supply  in  the  Resi- 
dence of  Mr.  Henry  G.  Marquand,  New  York. 
Illustrated. 

Kitchen  and  Hot  Water  Supply  in  the  Resi- 
dence of  Mr.  A.  J.  White.  Illustrated. 

Hot  Water  Supply  in  an  Office  Building.  Illus- 
trated. 

Kitchen  and  Hot  Water  Supply  in  the  Resi- 
dence of  Mr.  Sidney  Webster.  Illustrated. 

Plumbing  and  Water  Supply  in  the  Residence 
of  Mr.  H.  H.  Cook.  Illustrated. 


Large  8vo.  cloth,  $2.00. 
Address,  BOOK  DEPARTMENT,  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER, 

140  William  Street,  New  York. 


THE    PRINCIPLES 

OF 

VENTILATION  AND  HEATING 


THEIR  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION. 


BY 


JOHN  S.  BILLINGS,   M.  D.,  LL.D.  (Edinb.), 

Surgeon   U.  S.  Army. 


PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED. 


This  interesting  and  valuable  series  of 
papers,  originally  published  in  THE  SANI- 
TARY ENGINEER,  have  been  re-arranged 
and  re-written,  with  the  addition  cf  new 
matter. 

The  volume  is  published  in  response  to 
the  general  demand  that  these  important 
papers  should  be  issued  in  a  more  con- 
venient and  permanent  form,  and  also 
because  almost  all  the  reliable  literature 
on  this  subject  has  been  furnished  by 
English  Authors,  and  written  with  refer- 
ence to  tke  climate  oi  England,  which  is 
more  uniform  and  has  a  higher  proportion 
of  moisture.  The  need  of  a  book  based 
upon  the  conditions  of  the  American  cli- 
mate is  therefore  apparent. 

The  following  will  indicate  the  charac- 
ter of  the  subject-matter : 

Expense  of  Ventilafion — Difference  Be- 
tween "  Perfect  "  and  Ordinary  Ventila- 
tion— Relations  of  Carbonic  Acid  to  the 
Subject— Methods  of  Testing  Ventilation. 

Heat,  and  some  of  the  Laws  which 
govern  its  Production  and  Communication 
— Movements  of  Heated  Air — Movements 
of  Air  in  Flues — Shapes  and  Sizes  of 
Flues  and  Chimneys. 

Amount  of  Air-Supply  Required — 
Cubic  Space. 

Methods  of  Heating:  Stoves,  Furnaces, 
Fire-Places,  Steam,  and  Hot-water. 

Scheduling  for  Ventilation  Plans — 
Position  of  Flues  and  Registers — Means 


of  Removing  Dust — Moisture,  and  Plans 
for  Supplying  It. 

Patent  Systems  of  Ventilation  and 
Heating— The  Ruttan  System  —  Fire- 
Places — Stoves. 

Chimney-Caps — Ventilators  — Cowls — 
Syphons — Forms  of  Inlets. 

Ventilation  of  Halls  of  Audience — 
Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church— The 
Houses  of  Parliament— The  Hall  of  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

Theatres— The  Grand  Opera-House  at 
Vienna — The  Opera-House  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main — The  Metropolitan  Opera- 
House,  New  York — The  Madison  Square 
Theatre,  New  York  —  The  Criterion 
Theatre,  London  —  The  Academy  of 
Music,  Baltimore. 

Schools. 

Ventilation  of  Hospitals — St.  Peters- 
burgh  Hospital — Hospitals  for  Conta- 
gious Diseases— The  Barnes  Hospital— 
The  New  York  Hospital— The  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital. 

Forced  Ventilation — Aspirating-Shafts 
— Gas-jets — Steam  Heat  for  Aspiration — 
Prof.  Trowbridge's  Formulae — Application 
in  the  Library  Building  of  Columbia  Col- 
lege— Ventilating- Fans — Mixing- Valves. 

The  book  is  free  from  unnecessary 
technicalities  and  is  not  burdened  with 
scientific  formulae. 

It  is  invaluable  to  Architects,  Physi- 
cians, Builders,  Plumbers,  and  those  who 
contemplate  building  or  remodeling  their 
houses. 


SOLD  BY  ALL  BOOKSELLERS. 


Large  8vo.     Handsomely  Bound  in  Cloth.     Price  $3.00,  Postage  Paid. 

Address,  BOOK  DEPARTMENT, 

THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER,  140  WILLIAM  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 


OBTAINABLE  AT  LONDON  OFFICE,  92  AND  93  FLEET  STREET,  FOR  15  SHILLINGS. 


Kieley's  Patent  Water-Line  System  of  Steam-Heating, 


Kieley's  Patent  Dry-Return  System  of  Steam-Heating, 


The  accompanying  diagrams  illustrate  Kieley's  systems  of  returning  the  water  of  condensation  from 
a  heating-apparatus  to  a  boiler.  The  object  of  the  apparatus  illustrated  in  the  first  diagram  is  four- 
fold: tst,  To  be  able  to  carry  a  lower  water-line  in  the  return  and  relief  pipes  than  in  the  boiler  ;  2d, 
To  be  able  to  return  the  water  from  a  reduced  or  graduated  pressure  apparatus  ;  sd.  To  be  able  to  use 
the  exhaust  steam  from  engines  and  pumps  for  heating  the  building ,  and  4th,  To  be  able  to  lorce  a 
return  of  the  water  of  condensation  from  an  imperfectly  constructed  gravity  heating-apparatus. 

All  this  applies  to  the  system  shown  in  the  second  diagram,  with  the  exception  of  holding  a  water, 
line  in  the  return  and  relief  pipes  of  the  heating  apparatus.  In  this  system  the  returns  are  kept 
perfectly  dry.  The  chambers  marked  F  and  Cin  this  system  are  oil- traps.  They  will  prevent  any  oil  or 
sludge  from  getting  into  the  boiler.  They  can  be  applied  to  and  will  answer  the  same  purpose  in  the 
water-line  system  D  is  the  reduced-pressure-regulating  valve.  The  small  cut  represents  this 
system  in  connection  with  a  tank. 

By  the  use  of  either  of  these  system  a  good  working  job  and  a  saving  of  from  25  to 
50  per  cent,  is  guaranteed. 

SEND  FOR  CIRCULARS. 

TIMOTHY    KIELEY, 

ii  WEST  I3TH  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


WROUGHT-IRON  WELDED  BOILERS, 


PATTERN   "L." 

DIRECT    AND    INDIRECT 

HO  T-  WA  TER    RADIA  TORS. 


DAVIS'    AUTOMATIC    AIR-VALVES. 


WESTERN  MANUFACTURERS  OF  THE 

DUNNING     BOILER. 


ARTISTIC  RADIATORS. 


PATTERN  "A. 

THE   "  ECLIPSE  "    RADIATOR   FOR   STEAM   AND   HOT  WATER. 

(Patents  Applied  for.) 


MANUFACTURERS  OF  STEAM-HEATING   SPECIALTIES. 
ENGINEERS  AND  MACHINISTS. 

HAY  &  PRENTICE    COMPANY, 

CHICAGO,    ILL. 


ALBANY     STEAM-TRAP     COMPANY'S 


GRAVITATING  AND  SPECIAL  BUCKET 
RETURN   STEAM-TRAPS. 


These  Traps  automatically 
Irain  ihe  water  of  condensation 
'rom  Heating  Coils,  and  return 
the  same  to  the  Boiler  under 
pressure  whether  the  coils  are 
above  or  below  the  water  level  in 
Boiler.  Also  Pump-Governors 
that  can  be  connected  to  any  fi: 
class  steam-pump,  for  returni:  _ 
condensed  water  under  pressure 
from  low  piessure  or  exhaust 
steam  heating  systems. 


GRAVITATING  TRAP. 


The  Blessing  Patent  Renewable- Seat  Open-  Way  Valves 

FpR  STEAM.     ALSO  GLOBE,  CHECK,  AND  ANGLE  VALVES. 

The  Renewable  Seats  and  Disks  are  cast  from  the  best  Phosphor  Bronze 
Metal,  which  has  lasting  qualities,  double  that  of  the  best  Steam  Metal  com- 
monly used  in  first-class  valves.  Valve-Seats  and  Disks  removed  without 
removing  the  body  of  the  valve  from  the  pipe. 

MANUFACTURED    BY 

THE    ALBANY    STEAM-TRAP    CO. 

Established,  1870. 

OFFICE  AND  WORKS  : 
78  AND   80  CHURCH  STREET, 

ALBANY,   NEW  YORK. 


THE  DUNNING  BOILER, 

PATENT  WROUGHT-!RON  OR   STEEL,  WITH  SELF-FEEDING  COAL- 
MAGAZINE,  is  THE  OLDEST  AND  BEST  FOR 


OVER  3,500  IN  USE. 


KEEP  STEAM  UP  CONSTANTLY. 


LOW-PRESSURE 

S7  EAM-HEA  TING, 

And  Insures  a  Warm  House  Day  and  Night. 
Made  as  follows : 

As  a  MAGAZINE  BOILER,  which  requires  attention  but 

once  in  24  hours. 
"    SURFACE  BURNER,  to  burn  hard  or  soft  coal,  wood, 

or  coke. 

"    HOT- WATER  BOILER,  for  green-house  and  hot- 
water  heating. 

"  PORTABLE  BOILER,  to  be  set  without  brick-work. 
Also  in  two  sections  to  pass  through  any  door  where  a 
larger  one  cannot  be  used.  And  in  addition  to  the 
above  we  have  under  way  an  entirely  new  construction 
of  Sailer,  which  will  excel  anything  yet  upon  the 
market. 

Send  for  Illustrated  Catalogue  with  full  description 
and  Price-List.  t3^~  AGENTS  WANTED.  _^ 

N.  B. — Correspondence  solicited  from  Architects 
and  persons  building. 

MANUFACTURED  AT  THE 

NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  IRON  WORKS, 


GENEVA,  N.  Y. 
Also  Steam-Engines  and  Boilers  of  all  kinds. 


WHATEVER  IS  WORTH  DOING    IS  WORTH 
DOING   WELL." 

T)LANS,  Specifications,  and  Estimates  sub- 
mitted   for    High    and     Low     Pressure 
Steam-Heating   Apparatus    and    Venti- 
lation. 
* 

Thirty  years'  experience  on  best  class 

of  Public  and  Private  Buildings. 

Combine  a  practical  knowledge  of 
cost,  quality,  and  construction,  and  a 
correct  arrangement  of  same  with  re- 
gard to  Simplicity,  Durability,  Safety, 
Economy,  and  Cost  of  Maintenance. 

Defects  remedied  in  imperfectly  con- 
structed apparatus. 

SMITH  &  CONNORS, 
STEAM-HEATING    ENGINEERS, 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


y\  cm 

QRION 
R 

36  890 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALfFOKNlA 

AT 
LOS  ANGELES 


TH 

7561 

S22s 


UC  SOUTHERN  RTO 

000943836    7 


